Spring 2007
Special "Scotland" Edition
by Amanda L. Ebner
by Adam "TM" Wyatt
by Lorraine Angelino
by Ronatta D. Carter
by Erin Scott
by Kristen M. Goehausen
Amanda L. Ebner
University of Southern California
Gender Equity in Scottish Education
Our sovereignty, our lives hang in the balance
if we are not for women, who will be?
There are women put in prisons and prisons put in women
but our history need not be our destiny.
(J. Gorman “For Women’s Lives” 2003)
Since its inception in 1451, Scottish higher education has been centrally situated within the larger sociopolitical context of its national history, culture, and governance. A historically male domain, the Scottish university now works toward gender equity in relatively fragmented ways, primarily alongside recent government mandates. An absence of research and writing on the experience of Scottish women in education, combined with a pervasive “myth of equality” in academic settings, masks the institutionalized sexism still prevalent in contemporary Scottish universities (Breitenbach, Brown & Myers, 1998). Despite the fact that women scholastically outperform men from primary school to university, including in the hard sciences and medical fields, little attention is paid to their importance as scholars in the Scottish academic landscape (Breitenbach et.al., 1998).
Equally concerning is the backlash to Scotland’s increasingly liberal educational opportunity policies, which have been dismissed by critics who claim that “universality is the antithesis of excellence” (Luckhurst, 2002, p.37). For women, this negative response enabled a growing movement for the return to traditional Scottish norms, where higher education was a choice for the few, not an expectation for the many. Women achievers, as a result, are sometimes dissuaded from pursuing a university education, despite evidence that teachers consistently report better motivation, comprehension, and performance from female scholars at all levels (Schuller, 2001).
To fully understand the experience of women in Scottish higher education, one must consider the complex social systems of gendered politics, sociocultural history, and educational policymaking. In this paper, I will examine and critique the cultural climate in Scotland that simultaneously champions diversity while subtly dismissing feminism and inhibiting women’s academic success. From my experiences visiting five Scottish universities (University of Glasgow, Glasgow Caledonian University, University of St. Andrews, University of Edinburgh, and Napier University) and an extensive literature review, I will present a short history of women in Scottish education, summarize Scottish diversity and feminist philosophies, describe the current climate for Scottish women in higher education, evaluate existing strategies designed to overcome institutional gender discrimination, and recommend ways to develop a more empowering academic environment for Scottish women students.
A Brief History of Women in Scottish Higher Education
Since Queen Margaret College opened its doors in 1883 as an institution solely dedicated to developing female students, higher education for Scottish women has undergone significant sociopolitical change. In a society where women are twice marginalized, first by English cultural hegemony and next by Scottish male domination, female students constantly struggle to find affirming identities in higher education (Breitenbach, Brown & Myers, 1998). During the late nineteenth century, as gender equity in higher education advanced, the ancient Scottish universities formed a Ladies’ Educational Association as a precursor to the formal admission of women (Myers, 2001). Additionally, independent colleges such as the Glasgow-West End College of Domestic Science offered classes for women in the “feminine arts,” including cooking, housewifery, and etiquette (Lockhead, 2006). Though these efforts may seem patronizing in retrospect, in the late nineteenth century they were necessary to “establish a separate power base from men by stressing the special virtues which women could offer in education” (Salisbury & Riddell, 1999, p.3).
Despite these advancements, women remained conspicuously underserved in a system that defined the student as “master of his own fate rather than the object of a subtle patronage system” (Neave & Cowper, 1979, p. 18). Women were no more “masters of their own fate” than the men of color who were also denied access to higher education at this time. Translating the public esteem for universally accessible education into the broader idea of genderless social citizenship was difficult, even for 20th century Scots. In fact, nearly a century after they were welcomed into the hallowed halls of the university, women still comprised only 28.1% of all students (Neave & Cowper, 1979). It was not until the UK Equal Opportunities Commission established the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 that women could fully realize their potential as equals in higher education.
Conceptualizing Diversity in Contemporary Scotland
Today, Scottish universities are at a crossroads of several controversial issues, including potential top-up fees, internationalization, and the burgeoning conflicts of tradition versus innovation. At the intersection of these concerns lies a distinct conflict between the sanctity of the ancient Scottish university and the new governmental call for more diverse, pluralistic institutions of higher education. What is the university’s role in ensuring a diverse student population? What responsibility do universities have in altering their traditions to adapt to a changing student body? How much institutional flexibility is necessary to maintain an authentic sense of community? Questions like these continue to arise as the Scottish university renegotiates its relevance and assumes a more active role as diplomat and problem-solver.
Current Scottish approaches to diversity engagement in higher education parallel those of American universities in the 1990s. “Blindness” strategies intended to minimize crucial identity differences and emphasize human commonality abound, as evidenced in the lofty proclamation that “Scotland has good race relations because there is no racism here” (Breitenbach, Brown & Myers, 1998, p. 48). Furthermore, hate crime legislation in Scotland still protects only two identity-based violations, racism and sectarianism, turning a comparatively blind eye to the prominent issues of homophobia, sexism, and classism (Howie, 2006). A recent presentation on the historically inclusive policies of the University of Glasgow mentioned its “no barriers” approach to higher education, which allowed for the first black male medical student in the world, yet ironically remained closed to women of any color until the late 1890s (Richmond, 2006). Philosophically, both Scottish administrators and legislators advocate diversity, though actions necessary to achieve inclusive communities still elude most universities.
However, several Scottish agencies are making notable strides to develop progressive programs and services that address various aspects of diversity. The Commission for Racial Equality is working with the Scottish Parliament to establish the Commission for Equality and Human Rights to combat all forms of discrimination in the public sector. Scottish Women’s Aid, a domestic abuse support organization founded in 1973, recently launched the National Strategy for Domestic Abuse to reduce a growing social ill. The government-sanctioned Equality Challenge Unit (ECU), which oversees the Women and Equality Unit, promotes equality and diversity by providing free consulting, liaising, and publishing services in a collaborative, multi-agency format. At the grassroots level, all-female student organizations like the University of St. Andrews’ “Pink Links,” dedicated to supporting local low-income and physically abused women, are beginning to embrace and articulate the message of gender equality both inside and outside their campus walls.
Locating Post-Thatcher Feminism in Scotland
A recent study of male and female Scottish university students revealed that 27% of students aged 18-45 would “never” self-identify as feminist, while another 59% vowed to claim the identity only “occasionally” (Callaghan, Cranmer, Rowan, Siann, & Wilson, 1999). The sole feminist magazine to find success in the Scottish student underground scene, Harpies and Quines, lasted for only two years and is both eulogized and criticized as a fleeting liberal fancy. During a conversation with the Student Association advisor at the University of Edinburgh, I was informed that of over 200 student societies present there, only one (Women of the World) dealt exclusively with women’s issues (T. Shotton, personal communication, July 24, 2006). Another comment from a group of Scottish female teachers demanded answers to this feminist plight, commenting that:
We want an explanation of the unfairness of sexist oppression and a description of its
pernicious effects. It is particularly important to demonstrate that it is not mere slagging
or unpleasant forms of personal behavior that are being dealt with but rather a deeply
embedded social oppression which affects every area of women’s lives (Salisbury &
Riddell, 1999, p. 46).
From these anecdotes, one must wonder: where have all the feminists gone?
In a society still recovering from a “Thatcherized” regime, which “contributed both to the deradicalization of feminism and to fragmentation within it,” women are confused about their place in the movement (Breitenbach, Brown & Myers, 1998, p.57). Contemporary literature on the topic describes a lively debate that questions the sustainability of UK feminism, suggesting that the ‘micro-politics’ of everyday life may have superseded the need for a visible movement (Nash, 2002). During a candid student panel at the University of St. Andrews, I inquired about the presence of women’s organizations on campus as well as the overall status of female students in comparison to male. I was told that due to campus policy, single-sex societies cannot legally exist, after which the female student perplexedly explained, “but, I’ve never really experienced any discrimination based on gender here anyway.”
Until the UK plan for gender equity is fully enacted in April 2007, young Scottish women will endure a relatively stunted feminist movement without established vehicles for activism in the university environment. Negative media messages about feminism and feminists combined with a resistance to postmodern essentialist models of gender difference still plague Scottish culture at all levels (Callaghan et. al., 1999). Scottish women earn only 72.7% of comparable male income, which is surprisingly higher than the all-UK average, though still unacceptable (Clayton, 2000). The new 2004-2007 Gender Equality Scheme, one of three requirements of the Equality Bill, requires all public sector organizations to introduce 3-year plans to systematically and intentionally “eliminate unlawful discrimination and harassment and promote equality of opportunity between women and men” (UK Commission for Equality and Human Rights, 2004). More than any preceding legislation, this bill will serve as a strong catalyst toward academic gender equity.
Hitting the Glass Ceiling: Scottish Women in Academe
For too long, Scottish female students, staff, and faculty have subscribed to a “tradition of silence” that excludes them from public sector success and equity by quieting their collective voice (Breitenbach, Brown & Myers, 1998, p. 49). Paternalistic, often sexist university norms are lauded to potential parents as evident of a “duty of care”; their effectiveness allegedly proven by low rape statistics and the promise of insularly protective campuses. The four ancient universities have never elected or appointed a female principal or rector; women in positions of university leadership are still regarded as “rare animals” (McNeish, 2006). A nearly tangible glass ceiling exists for female university administrators; they account for only 20% of senior lecturers and 14% of full professors (Schofield, 2006). More women than ever are finding employment in the universities, yet the disproportionate amount of women to men in lesser-paid positions threatens to produce a feminized academic ghetto, void of the degrees and opportunities necessary to advance.
Two of my personal conversations with female administrators painted similarly dismal pictures of the potential for women to succeed in higher education. One noted the wage and promotion gap for women working in management, explaining that some supervisors hire women only to caution them, “don’t expect a promotion” (S. McNeish, personal communication, July 18, 2006). Another confessed that “women are always disadvantaged” and went on to comment that universities are comfortable, flexible places for women since their main faculty role is to teach, not research like the male professors (E. Browne, personal communication, July 21, 2006). Pigeonholing women into positions with little potential for pay raises or promotions ensures a base-level female administrative force that in turn propels males into higher positions basically by default.
Raw data confirm these observations of women’s disenfranchisement at the university. Nearly two thirds of the students seeking counseling at the University of Edinburgh are women; eating disorders, relationship problems, and academic pressures top the list of frequent complaints. The University of St. Andrews instituted eating disorder support groups through their Sports Centre in 2002, and Napier University recently introduced a minority women’s one-on-one counseling service for international students. Gender struggles do not end with undergraduate students and are intensified as women move up the educational ladder. The University of Edinburgh employs 2,500 male academic staff as compared to only 1,750 female; they also have double the amount of women versus men in clerical or part-time positions (Jennings, 2006). The number of women in high-level university positions is actually decreasing; the percentage of female professors dipped slightly over the past five years (Schofield, 2006).
There are, however, universities making purposeful change. The University of Edinburgh’s most recent strategic plan aims to increase the amount of female faculty in the sciences during the period 2002-2006 using aggressive recruitment and training efforts. Glasgow University reconfirmed its efforts to rigorously enforce equity policy and to actively address issues of discrimination on campus (Schofield, 2006). Napier University recently appointed a full-time Diversity Partner through the Equal Opportunities Commission to help develop a markedly progressive three-year equity plan.
In addition, several innovative academic efforts are helping to ensure awareness and education on a variety of women’s issues. The University of St. Andrews, for example, now offers a course entitled “The Weaker Sex? Women and Scottish Society” which promises to examine and critique the political, social, and civil rights struggle facing Scottish women both historically and presently. A 2005 collaborative EU research project entitled “Strategies of Inclusion: Gender and the Information Society” joined several Scottish and other European universities to explore issues of female image, culture, and policy. Most compelling are the two new research centers dedicated to the study of women and gender in higher education, the International Centre for Gender and Women’s Studies at the University of Glasgow and the Scottish Centre for Women in Science, Engineering and Technology jointly sponsored by Napier, Glasgow, and Glasgow Caledonian universities, both of which provide an institutional voice for women’s issues in higher education. In terms of empowering female administrative staff, the University of St. Andrews now offers a three-month, workshop-based women’s development program called Springboard which aims to increase confidence and job satisfaction while encouraging participants towards greater personal and professional achievements. Clearly, campuses nationwide are devising immediate and effective strategies to close the gender gap in higher education and support broad anti-discrimination policies.
Recommendations for Scottish Colleges and Universities
Models and Mentors. Universities must do more than simply tout their gender-inclusive policies; indeed, they must create intentional programs and services to achieve equity goals in supportive academic environments. Pairing female faculty with women students in mentoring relationships can enhance the potential of undergraduate students to pursue postgraduate education and help women envision themselves within a more gender-balanced future professoriate. These relationships will be particularly meaningful if they unite women in nontraditionally female disciplines such as engineering, medicine, mathematics, and the hard sciences. An even more progressive university may consider employing a full or part-time staff member to design, implement, and assess diversity education programs, many of which should necessarily address gender equity. In addition, the ancient universities should look to the modern or “1992” universities and further education institutions as role models for the proactive recruitment and retention of diverse students.
Strategic Planning. In the vein of the University of Edinburgh and Napier University, other Scottish universities must follow suit with deliberate strategic planning for gender equity. Governmental legislation such as the Sex Discrimination Act and its supplemental documents, like the “Delivering on Gender” plan, constitute sound models for university strategic plans. Setting concrete goals with measurable outcomes, such as increased expenditure for women’s studies and research, an increase in high-level women administrators and full professors, and the inclusion of gender concerns in curriculum and literature, is the only way to make accurate progress toward an equitable campus environment (Lasonen, 1995). Furthermore, the effort for equity cannot succeed if it only begins in higher education. Discrimination in early education induces a “snowball effect” which can negatively affect female scholastic attainment in later years (Tinklin & Croxford, 2000). Unbiased gender messages must be absorbed into curricula at the primary and secondary levels in order to ensure lifelong commitment and comprehension from Scottish adults.
Student Organizations. Finally, any bona fide movement toward gender equity in higher education must employ the initiative and energy of undergraduate students. Student associations can sponsor and plan events that spotlight women’s and human rights issues, both nationally and abroad. Student association advisors can encourage the development of female-focused and feminist-friendly student societies on campus. Student services departments can construct gender-specific leadership opportunities such as assertiveness workshops or all-female immersion retreats aimed at developing self-assured female leaders. Existing academic departments in cultural, liberal or social studies can begin to formulate gender or women’s studies curriculums and degree programs for undergraduate students. The holistic and unbiased support of women and men, both academically and personally, defines the core mission for gender equity in Scottish higher education.
Conclusion
As the empowering lyrics in Judy Gorman’s 2003 song suggest, for Scottish women, “our history is not our destiny.” Women still face multiple levels of oppression in Scotland, such as discriminatory employment practices and the absence of a strong and unified feminist movement. Despite these setbacks, positive progress is evident in several key arenas. Higher education, buttressed by the Sex Discrimination Act, Equality Bill, and Equal Opportunities Commission, serves as a leader in eliminating gender bias from the Scottish public sector. To further this mission, more extensive research on feminism in the Scottish university, the girlhood experience in Scottish primary and secondary schools, and the reality of women in the Scottish professoriate is necessary. In sum, current university and government strategies are proving increasingly effective at giving women a voice in higher education. The ‘new rules’ are set and the players cast; it is now the responsibility of Scottish higher education to seize the opportunity to recreate the game.
References
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Adam "TM" Wyatt
University of Southern California
Collegiate Academic Structures in Scotland and the United States: A Comparative Analysis
Introduction
To understand the differences between higher education academic structures is to create a synergistic experience that benefits both structures involved. In a recent trip to Scotland to study the higher education structures, I was able to compare the structure of academic programs at the graduate and undergraduate levels to those of colleges and universities in the United States. I will discuss these differences, which create such a synergism, in the following paper. First, I will outline the differences in two and four year institutions both in the United States and their respective counterparts in Scotland. Second, I will discuss the divisions of academic units by comparing United States institutional structures against the Scottish. Third, I will chart the structure of undergraduate and graduate academic programs, inclusive of the typical process that students at all levels go through their degree. Finally, I will discuss the difference between the higher education systems in the United States and Scotland to establish which methods, if any, employed in Scotland could be beneficial to the United States higher education system.
Structure of Two and Four Year Institutions
Colleges and universities in the United States are typically divided into two-year community colleges or junior colleges and four-year colleges or universities. The two-year colleges provide vocational or technical training that leads to an Associate of Science (A.S.) or an Associate of Arts (A.A.) award, which are the highest degrees awarded, at the end of the two years. They also provide continual education for those who wish to participate in lifelong learning or change careers. Additionally, they are used as middle points for high school graduates who may have not had the grades to enter a four-year college or university, but who wish to continue on to further their education and potentially enter a university. The education received at a community or junior college is sometimes remedial and provides the basic requirements necessary to move forward in a collegiate career. Further differentiation can be made between community or junior colleges by the type of education that they provide.
In the United States, community colleges may also be non-profit vocational colleges. These colleges provide training in service careers such as welding, furniture making, and baking. Additionally, there are for-profit schools such as DeVry University which provide more vocational training at an advanced level based on the student’s interest. A student may pursue an A.S. in technical design and become fluent in programs such as AutoCAD. The for-profit universities typically provide more choice for the students in terms of what they want to earn from their degree program, whereas the traditional non-profit vocational schools have fixed curriculum with elective choices for the students to complete their degree. Students may sometimes move from these vocational schools to four-year institutions; however, it is uncommon as they provide no theoretical majors for students. A student would often need to start their education over (LA Trade Tech, 2006).
Four-year colleges and universities, in the United States, provide more liberal arts based degrees, which are more theoretical and research oriented; or, they offer high-level applied degrees such as engineering and business. Training in these institutions can lead to, at the undergraduate level, Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Bachelor of Science (B.S.), or Bachelor of Music (B.M.) degrees, and at the graduate level, a variety of degrees ranging from Master of Science (M.S.) to Master of Education (M.Ed.) to Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees. This list is not inclusive of all potential degrees that may be earned. It is meant to show examples of potential degrees that may be earned. The education here is usually in one or two specific fields depending on the degree and in a particular university division such as a School of Letters, Arts, and Sciences. The following diagram shows the process in the American education system.
Not unlike the United States, Scottish higher education is divided up into two levels. The first level is called further education and the second, higher education (Profiles, 2005). The further education level is equivalent to community college in the United States. Student who choose this track go into professions of a vocational nature such as cosmetology. Students who pursue further education may also move into higher education after completing courses that allow them to enter higher education.
At the higher education level in Scotland, students train in two distinct environments. The first of these are the community-based schools such as Napier University or Glasgow Caledonian that provide high-level applied degrees such as business, engineering, and nursing. The second of these schools are the ancient universities such as the University of St. Andrews or the University of Edinburgh, which provide theoretical based programs in medicine, law, sciences, and arts and humanities. Here, degrees equivalent to the American Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, and Doctor of Philosophy may be earned.
The Academic Structure of an Undergraduate Degree
In the United States, both at the community college and university level, degrees are set up based on requirements for a general education and specific courses for an area of emphasis. For example, if a student were to pursue an Associate of Arts degree in French, they would take courses in basic French as well as general education requirements. After completion of the Associate of Arts degree, the student can pursue their course further at a four-year university with a major in French. Here, the student would complete more courses in their intended major as well as more general education requirements.
In Scotland, the same principal applies. However, depending on the degree at the further education level, the student may not be allowed to continue on to university. For example, if the student was to pursue a degree in beauty therapy, this would be a terminal degree at the further education level. However, if the student was to choose a degree such as international tourism management, there is the possibility of the student moving to a university education after completing their basic requirements at a further education school.
A further difference between Scotland and the United Kingdom, as compared to the United States is that Scotland provides 4- or 5-year higher education programs. In the rest of the United Kingdom, higher education programs are limited to 3 years of study. For example, if a student in Scotland was studying a foreign language, they would have 5 years of higher education to develop their proficiency in the language of their choice (John Alexander, personal communication, 07/18/2006). This would also include an intensive study abroad experience in the home country of their language. A chemistry degree would consist of 4 years of study at a university with intensive research experiments in the third and fourth year. In other UK universities, both courses are limited to 3 years of pure coursework in the desired field.
The Academic Structure of a Graduate or Postgraduate Degree
Graduate or Postgraduate degrees in Scotland and the United States are similar in that they are both research based degrees. The difference comes in how the programs are broken down by taught master’s or doctoral degrees versus research master’s or doctoral degrees in Scotland. A taught master’s degree would be the equivalent of a course-based degree in the United States. For example, in my Master’s of Education program, we have 33 units of coursework and 8 units of practicum and seminar capstone courses. In Scotland, this would be equivalent to the taught degree program because no thesis or research component drives the completion of the degree.
Research Master’s degrees, in Scotland, are based solely on defining a research project at the beginning of the admittance and working with faculty to complete said project. This method requires no formal coursework requirement and is often extremely independent. There is the possibility of taking coursework during the program to enhance your learning and research, but it is not required.
In Scotland, at the doctoral level, this difference between taught and research degrees exists also. For example, a student could pursue a Doctor of Education degree which is classified as a taught doctoral degree. However, the student could also pursue a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Education which is a research based degree. At the taught level, the student would take coursework and complete a dissertation based on a field in which they are interested. At the research level, the student would define a research project based on an area of interest to complete over a few years, but no formal coursework requirement is in place. The student may wish to take elective courses at this level also; however, it is not mandatory and will not count towards their degree progress (John Alexander, personal communication, 07/18/2006).
In the United States, however, there is no classified difference between research and taught doctoral degrees. At both the applied and research levels, coursework and research is required to complete the doctoral degree. Take for example, the comparison of the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) and Doctor of Philosophy in Education (Ph.D.) degrees at the University of Southern California compared to the Ed.D. and Ph.D. in Scotland. The Ed.D. in both Scotland and the USA will consist of taught coursework followed by an individual dissertation. For the Ph.D., Scottish universities require no coursework with the total focus being on research. American universities require a certain amount of coursework and research to meet the objectives of the area of specialization.
Private and Public Universities
Another stark difference between US and Scottish universities is the public and private schools. Scottish universities are public institutions. Private schools do not exist. However, the ancient schools such as University of Glasgow, University of Edinburgh, and St. Andrews University are allowed to be more selective in their student population than general colleges and universities such as Napier University or Glasgow-Caledonian University. All universities receive funding from the state or Scottish Executive at a set amount depending on their student enrollment.
In contrast, the United States has both private and public four-year and two-year colleges and universities. The public schools receive funding from the federal government, which prohibits universities from discriminating; however, individual state governments may set quotas that they feel are adequate areas for their state populations. Private schools receive federal funding in the form of research grants and student aid; therefore they may not discriminate but have individual control over quotas for the university.
Academic Divisions and Units
Similar to the United States structure of academic divisions, Scottish universities are divided into subsections called Faculties. A faculty at a Scottish university would be equivalent to a School at a college or university. For example, the Faculty of Science and Engineering, in Scotland, would be equivalent to the School of Science and Engineering, in America. Much like American college, Scottish faculties have a division head or dean who directs initiatives and strategic plans for the faculty (Sinclair, 2006).
Academic Progress and Advising
Academic advising also plays an integral role in the success of Scottish students at any two-year or four-year university or college. Students entering in straight from secondary education, after completion of their “highers,” might not be ready to decide on a major, and as a result may vacillate between subjects. The “highers” are exams required to enter further and higher education. These are similar to taking a required entrance exam such as the SAT. Mature learners need advice in the same manner, especially if they are fulfilling degree requirements to advance in their work field. Academic advising helps make sure students are taking courses they need to fulfill their major requirements within a specific area inside a faculty.
Many of the universities in Scotland utilize the Internet to facilitate the spread of information about services available to their students. Glasgow Caledonian University recently introduced “The Base” a service that allows students to come inquire about any topic, and even schedule appointments with advisors at the same time (J. Kmita – Dawson, personal communication, July 20, 2006). Referrals are made out to sources that are not covered at The Base. For students uncomfortable with visiting in person, the entire service is also located online for convenience.
At St. Andrew’s University, SALTIRE, St. Andrews Learning and Teaching: Innovation, Review and Enhancement, offers support to students and staff/faculty alike in academic studies and even upcoming related events (St. Andrew’s Website). Students with trouble in the classroom taking notes, or even studying can meet one on one with teachers and learn techniques to help improve their study habits. Booklets are available for students to download from the Internet, and further their study habits in a variety of organizational topics (St. Andrew’s Website). Academic advising is mandatory for all students and they meet with an advisor specific to their course of study (St. Andrews website).
Universities and colleges in the United States have differing policies with regards to academic advising. Many schools require that students entering into a program during orientation meet one on one with an advisor who will help develop a course of study based on the student’s reported interests.
Another point of interest with Scottish schools, as compared to American institutions, is that they provide pastoral care to all their students. Pastoral care is administered by a staff member who looks after the student’s emotional, spiritual and mental well-being as compared to their academic progress. Pastoral care may be mandated at some universities depending on the student’s issues during their program (Lynda Ali, personal communication, 07/24/2006). In the United States, to receive this sort of care, a student would need to speak with a counselor in a center or, for spiritual reasons, meet with the campus chaplain or religious office.
Learning from Each Other
Scottish and American colleges and universities can learn much from each other by creating an open dialogue between the two countries. For academic programs and degree progress in the United States, we can provide staff and faculty who both provide sound advice on completing a degree and on personal matters of a student. Building a careful relationship with the student could help a student succeed in their academic program. For academic divisions, the United States can learn how to consolidate and centralize programs that have common core values and areas of interest. This would improve communication between the departments and aid in collaborative research—an area that is of extreme interest in United States institutions of higher education at this time. For the United States, citizens can learn that a good education does not have to be distinguished by a public or private school. All universities should be supported by the same dollars as they are in Scotland. A more prestigious university could require more tuition or raise their admission standards to choose more selective students.
With graduate degrees, Scotland could learn the value of having core courses required for a research degree to enhance a student’s proficiency in research methods or a subject area. For the United States, we could learn the value of requiring students to become independent learners and create their own destiny by researching their own areas of interest during their program. For undergraduate degrees, American universities can learn that students can be independent thinkers and make them really learn their subjects instead of having completely taught degrees. Additionally, the American institutions should learn that not all degrees are meant to be completed in four years. Some degrees can be shorter; others can be longer depending on the area studied. A student should not be penalized, as they are now, for taking longer to complete a degree. For degree progress from high school to graduate school, both Scotland and the United States should look at ways to increase access for more students and collaborate on issues that are common to both countries.
Conclusion
Scotland provides a valuable location to study the difference in higher education systems between the United States and itself. From academic structure to academic advising, institutions in both universities can learn how to better educate and provide services for the next generation of college bound students.
References
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Lorraine Angelino
Lander University
Scotland: Use of Technology to Promote Educational Growth
“Distance learning and e-education has to be one of the expanding markets of the near future,” says Gordon Thompson (2006a), Cisco’s Scottish operations director, at the www2006 international symposium held in Edinburgh the week of May 23 – 26, 2006. He continued, “Scotland is already a world leader in this field, and I can honestly say that there is not a single country that can claim to be as prepared for this as we are, but there is still work to be done.”
There are 23 institutions of higher education in Scotland including 13 universities, 6 colleges of higher education, 3 colleges of education, and the Open University in Scotland. The number of students enrolled varies depending on the institution. University of Edinburgh and University of Glasgow have over 16,000 students, Glasgow Caledonian University has over 12,000 students, Napier University has over 13,000 students, and St. Andrews has over 6,800.
The Standards in Scotland’s School etc Act 2000
The Standards in Scotland’s School etc Act 2000 stated that every child has the right to an education and outlined methods to modernize the teaching profession to increase its status. In addition, five national priorities for education were established and defined as follows:
- National Priority 1 – Achievement & Attainment
to raise standards of educational attainment for all in schools, especially in the core
skills of literacy and numeracy, and to achieve better levels in national measures of
achievement, including examination results;
- National Priority 2 – Framework for Learning
to support and develop the skills of teachers and the self-discipline of pupils, and to
enhance school environments so that they are conducive to teaching and learning;
- National Priority 3 – Inclusion & Equality
to promote equality and help every pupil benefit from education, with particular
regard paid to pupils with disabilities, and special educational needs, and to Gaelic
and other lesser used languages;
- National Priority 4 – Values & Citizenship
to work with parents to teach pupils respect for self and one another and their
interdependence with other members of their neighborhood and society, and to
teach them the duties and responsibilities of citizenship in democratic society; and
- National Priority 5 – Learning for Life
to equip pupils with the foundation skills, attitudes, and expectations necessary to
prosper in a changing society, and to encourage creativity and ambition. (Scottish
Executive, 2004, p. 7)
Distance education and e-learning will need to play a vital role in accomplishing Scotland’s National Priorities for Education. The primary purpose of my research is to discover how, as educators, we can use distance education or e-learning to reach students that would not have an opportunity to attend college by any other method. A secondary purpose of my research is to find out if the perception about distance education is different in Scotland then in the United States. If perceptions are different, I would like to learn what Scotland does different that has won over the skeptics. This information could help design a better methodology for developing and marketing distance education and e-learning courses.
Research Method
This research encompassed an online search of current literature, university Websites, and governmental Websites. In addition, I traveled to Scotland, July 2006, with a study abroad program through Clemson University and visited University of Glasgow, Glasgow Caledonian University, St. Andrews University, University of Edinburgh, and Napier University. During our stay in Scotland, we had the opportunity to talk with government officials, professors, students, and student services personnel.
History of Distance Education in United Kingdom (UK)
Distance education has been around for over 150 years. University of London established The External Programme in 1858 and “is the world’s longest-running distance learning programme” (University of London, 2006). In 1926, J.C. Stobart had a vision to design a ‘wireless university’ but it was not until the 1960s that the concept became a reality. Originally marketed as the ‘University of the Air’ the UK’s Open University was born. In 1969, the Open University became a ‘real’ university complete with the first Vice Chancellor, Walter Perry. In 1971, the first students started class and began work on their first foundation courses (Open University, 2006). Today, the Open University has nearly 200,000 students worldwide with 13 regional centers. A regional center located in Edinburgh, Scotland has 15,600 local students (Open University Scotland, 2006).
Definitions
Ancient universities. Universities founded in Scotland during the medieval period includes University of St. Andrews, founded 1411, University of Glasgow, founded 1451, University of Aberdeen, founded 1495, and University of Edinburgh, founded 1583 (Wikipedia, 2006a).
Devolution. Delegation of powers to local bodies (Webster, 1997). May 6, 1999, the Scottish electorate voted to elect a Scottish Parliament fulfilling a commitment of the UK’s ruling Labour Party. The Scottish became responsible for certain aspects of the Scottish legislation, which included education (Osborne, Cloonan, Morgan-Klein, & Loots, 2000).
Distance Education. Learning from a distance where the students have contact with a professor but it might not be face-to-face. This might include video, television, remote conferencing, audio bridges, etc.
E-learning. Learning on-line and using Web-based resources or other media such as CD and DVDs.
Further Education (FE). FE is the step between secondary school and higher education. Typically covers Highers and vocational qualifications and is available to anyone over 16 years of age (Jewel & Esk Valley College, 2006).
Higher Education (HE). Higher education includes both undergraduate level and graduate level coursework.
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). HEIs are institutions that offer a variety of missions and academic traditions. At large universities staff engage in research, teaching, and scholarship (Scottish National Committee, 1997). Some universities have vocational education geared toward the adult student and offers continuing education and part-time degrees. Typically, HEIs will have an association with further education colleges (National Dossier, 2004).
Highers. Highers are national exit exams from secondary school and used by Higher Educaiton Institutions as entrance qualifications (Wikipedia, 2006b).
Mega-universities. A mega university is a distance education institute that enrolls a large number of students. An example, The Open University in the UK currently enrolls around 150,000 undergraduates and over 30,000 postgraduate students (The Open University, 2006).
Scottish Schools Digital Network (SSDN). The SSDN project is a national intranet that will digitally link 800,000 educators and students throughout Scotland. Rollout of the network will commence in the last quarter of 2006 (SSDN, 2006).
Key Findings
Ancient Universities. While in Scotland, we visited three ancient universities: University of Glasgow, St. Andrews University, and University of Edinburgh. When asked about distance education the basic response was that they did not have distance education or e-learning but the Open University is highly respected for their high quality education. However, the ancient universities had computers available for their students and faculty, had access to the Internet, and used the Internet to distribute class lecture notes. At the University of Edinburgh, there was some interest in distance education and Roadburg (Personal interview, July 24, 2006) commented, “A committee has been selected to look at distance education as a method to assist our students with disabilities.” When asked about the Open University helping to design the curriculum she was supportive of the idea and acknowledged the high quality of work that comes from the Open University. University of Aberdeen, which we did not visit, has many of their undergraduate and postgraduate courses available through distance learning as well as courses taught through the Centre for Lifelong Learning (University of Aberdeen, 2006).
Glasgow Caledonian University. Glasgow Caledonian University is a ‘new’ university created in 1993 by combining the Queen’s College and Glasgow Polytechnic. The most recent addition to campus is The Saltire Center. When you step into the building, it is like stepping through time. The architecture is outstanding and all of the furnishings are ultramodern. The Saltire Center is a one-stop shop for student services complete with a library and full of innovative technology. Even with all the innovative technology, Glasgow Caledonian University offers only a few distance education courses.
Napier University. The Business School at Napier University is a new building designed with the newest technology possible. There is a computer lab in the atrium on the second floor that is enormous in size; there are rows and rows of computers. A second lab is available on the first floor but not quite as large. According to the postgraduate prospectus (2006), there are 1250 PCs and 150 Apple Macs spread out over seven campuses.
Sam Allwinkle (2006), Director of Lifelong Learning at Napier University, explained that the university recently received a grant for ₤2 mil to develop the distance education and lifelong learning programs at Napier University. The majority of this grant will fund setting up distance education between Napier University and China.
Napier University also received a matching grant from the European Social Fund in early 2005 for approximately ₤330,000 to develop 20 Masters level distance education modules. The first phase commenced on May 1, 2005 and consisted of developing 12 core modules for a generalist MBA. The second phase, commenced in February 2006, and consisted of four specialist MBA programs (Napier University Business School, 2005).
Napier University and China. In response to the Scottish Executive’s strategy “to strengthen Scotland’s engagement with China” (Scottish Executive, 2006a), Napier University has developed “strong relationships with educational providers and governmental organizations in China” (Scottish Executive, 2006b). In 2005-2006, Napier University and the Chinese Ministry of Education agreed to an articulation arrangement that allows Chinese students to attend local institutions and then finish their degrees at Napier University in Edinburgh. There are over 400 students from two partnering institutions, Zhenzhou University of Light Industry and Shandong University of Finance, which participate in the program. As part of the agreement, Napier faculty assists in the development of the syllabus for each program and teaches in China. In addition, there are around 1,000 Napier University students studying at other partner institutions including the University of Hong Kong and are being taught by Napier faculty (Scottish Executive, 2006b).
The Robert Gordon University. The Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen gained university status in 1992. In 2002, the Department of eLearning (DeL) was formed “to provide a centre of excellence focused on the development, delivery and support of RGU’s e-enabled learning environments” (The Robert Gordon University, 2006a).
In May 2006, the European Social Fund (ESF) awarded DeL a grant for ₤250,000 to develop virtual learning environments (VLE) and innovative Information and Communication Technology (ICT) solutions (Robert Gordon University, 2006b).
Open University. The Open University main campus is located in Milton Keynes, England. In addition, there are 13 regional offices including a regional office in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Open University system has close to 200,000 students and fits the description of a ‘mega-university.’
The style of teaching used at the Open University is ‘supported open learning’ or ‘distance learning.’ Supported means that students will receive support from a tutor and student services staff at the closest regional office. Open learning means that you will learn on your own time and will be responsible for completing assignments by yourself unless assigned to a group project (Open University, 2006).
According to The Sunday Times (2004), the quality of education at the Open University is exceptional. Only four institutions, Cambridge, Loughborough, York, and the London School of Economics (LSE) have a better teaching record in the UK. The Open University earned top ratings in 19 subjects and is “dedicated to widening participation and giving people a second chance at education” (The Sunday Times, 2005).
Comparing Scotland to the United States
Perceptions of the Open University and University of Phoenix. In Scotland, perceptions are mixed when it comes to distance education and e-learning. The Open University received top ratings in 19 different subjects by the Quality Assurance Agency. Only four other universities in the UK had better ratings than the Open University. Everyone we met acknowledged the high level of quality programs at the Open University but several professors still struggle with saying distance education is quality learning.
In the United States, for-profit companies such as the University of Phoenix conjure up the thought of a “diploma mill” and while some businesses have started accepting the degrees from University of Phoenix, students find it very difficult to transfer credits to traditional educational institutions. In addition, traditional educational institutions in higher education will not accept a PhD from the University of Phoenix. John Fernandes, President and CEO, Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), stated that these types of schools rely on “moonlighting amateurs” to teach the courses (Symonds, 2003). The North Central Association of Colleges and Schools have accredited the University of Phoenix but AACSB will not accredit their Business College.
Distance education at the traditional universities and colleges are in their infancy in Scotland and the government, via the European Social Fund, is encouraging universities to expand their services by awarding grants to assist in the process.
In the United States, distance education is a mixed bag. Some traditional universities are expanding their distance education services to take full advantage of new technologies while other universities have decided to use technology for passing out lecture notes and course assignments.
Distance learner’s characteristics. Distance learners in Scotland are very similar to distance learners in the United States. “Distance learners are independent, self-directed, autonomous, internally motivated, and collaborative in some cases” (Angelino, Williams, & Natvig, 2006, p. 7; Diaz & Bontenbal, 2001). “They are 22-50 years of age, unable to enroll in traditional undergraduate programs due to other responsibilities, and typically a lifelong learner. In addition, they have a job, could have childcare responsibilities, commute more than 10 miles to campus, and have computer experience” (Angelino et al, 2006, p. 7; Dutton, Dutton, & Perry, 2002). In Scotland, marketing for distance education focuses on international students and students with disabilities more so than in the United States.
Conclusion
Scotland is trying several different methods to promote educational growth in the region. One method is distance education, which allows students to attend classes in their own space and at their convenience. The Open University in one option that is available today and many students from the Highlands of Scotland are taking advantage of the opportunity (Open University, 2006). The Robert Gordon University’s Department of eLearning is also delivering on-line learning to both on-campus and distance education students.
From our lectures in Scotland, we found the real opportunity for the Scottish universities is to teach international students because they pay full price for an education and the government does not supplement them. Scottish students and students from within the EU get a free education if accepted into the university. Therefore, universities are now marketing heavily to international students. The University of Edinburgh is going to start a program in Africa where they will actually go to Africa to teach. E-learning or distance education would be perfect for this project but instead they have decided to continue with the traditional method of face-to-face.
In contrast, Napier University has implemented E-learning modalities by teaming up with China. This university is sending faculty to China to teach face-to-face, plus using distance learning. Currently faculty members are developing modules to teach Chinese students and have received a matching grant from the Scottish government to help cover some of the costs.
Universities in Scotland are attempting to use distance education as a method of reaching students in remote locations of the world and in effect promoting educational growth as a means to grow their economy. For the ancient universities, they understand the economics of increasing the number of international students but value their traditional teaching method of lecturing face-to-face. They are hanging on to their traditions and are having a hard time understanding the advantages of distance education.
Further research
Growing the economy in Scotland is critical to the country’s success. Growing education is critical to growing the economy. Research is needed to find the most effective and efficient method to grow education and to continually evaluate the quality of the education being delivered.
References
See printable version
Ronatta D. Carter
North Carolina State University
Higher Education in Scotland: Exploring Funding
Opportunities for Post-Secondary Learning
Introduction
Within the financial structure of higher education lie several avenues for partnerships in the United States, however, the varying number and types of financial resources for higher education may differ abroad. This research paper will address major aspects surrounding higher education funding issues and opportunities in Scotland as well as neighboring countries in the United Kingdom. The topic of higher education funding will first be introduced with a brief history of its origin within the Scottish culture, noting past and present funding trends within Scotland’s higher education system and Scotland’s growth in terms of the number of higher education institutions (HEI) it houses. The review will also highlight how funding is currently allocated and how funding considerations correspond with a student’s choice of major. After taking a more in dept analytical approach into funding opportunities for Scottish students, the paper will discuss similarities and differences among government interaction in higher education between the United States and United Kingdom. Literary works will be critiqued in an effort to demonstrate different viewpoints in HE funding concerns.
History in Context
Scotland, known for its scenic routes, lakes (lochs), and bagpipes; stretches approximately 275 miles long, 150 miles wide, is home to approximately 5 million residents, and carries with it a rich history (Porter & Prince, 2006). Sloan (1971) notes that independence was for a long time, the very reason for many of Scotland’s battles and the thought of having its own freedom from England was enough to fill the hearts and spirits of the Scots. The Union of Scotland and England in 1707 brought with it the economic opportunity to trade abroad, thus forming an alternative solution to chronic poverty in Scotland (Sloan, 1971). The union also left several areas under the rule of Scotland without English influence. These areas included law, the Church, and the education system (Cowper & Neave, 1979).
In regards to higher education in Scotland, Cowper and Neave (1979) noted that institutions of higher learning date back as early as the 14th century. During the 1960s, it was reported that there were a total of four universities in Scotland: the University of Aberdeen, the University of Glasgow, the University of St. Andrew’s, and the University of Edinburgh (Cowper & Neave, 1979). Today, there are 13 universities in Scotland, six colleges in higher education, three colleges of education, and the Open University in Scotland (sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006).
Higher education in Scotland is quite unique in that access to higher education has always been easier in Scotland than in England (Cowper & Neave, 1979). In fact, Cowper and Neave (1979), suggested that one Scottish person out of a thousand was a university student during the 19th century. Cowper and Neave (1979) also suggested that Scotland’s higher education system is unique in that most Scottish students live off-campus and commute approximately 30 to 40 miles to campus. Perhaps the most significant historical element in higher education for Scotland is that traditionally, Scotland’s educational system reached all classes of society, not just privileged residents (Sloan, 1971). Lower class and middle-class parents alike would send their children to be taught with their more affluent counterparts, thus Scotland’s higher education system serves as a means of supplying skilled and talented students into the workforce (Sloan, 1971). In regards to diversity, there were no barriers to education in terms of ethnicity or religion. The only barrier to education was gender until the late 1890s when women were allowed to matriculate into college (L. Richmond, personal communication, July 19, 2006).
Current Trends
According to Gill Troup, Head of Higher Education and Science with the Scottish Executive (Scottish Government System), some of the challenges currently facing Scotland include a low labor market for 16-24 year olds, an unemployment / uneducated rate of nearly 14 percent for 16-24 year olds, low business start-up for the country, and a declining population (G. Troup, personal communication, July 18, 2006). For Scotland’s higher education system, this suggests that colleges will need to find alternative ways to reach current and prospective students as well as potential employers in order to grow Scotland’s economy. Today, the most popular major for many Scottish students is business administration. Other popular majors include engineering, social studies, and law (J. Alexander, personal communication, July 19, 2006). Also increasingly popular are Further Education Colleges (FE colleges), which are similar to community colleges in the United States. At FE colleges, students focus on vocational skills and trades that are in high demand. These colleges were also created to meet the demands of having a more technology-based society and are often recognized as a link between secondary schools and higher education institutions in Scotland (Cowper & Pickard, 1981). During the 1980s, enrollment rates of full-time students in Scotland were relatively low. According to Cowper and Pickard (1981), in comparison with the United States, full-time enrollment rates for 15-19 year-old youths were 77 percent for the U.S. and 48 percent for Scotland, thus FE colleges served as an alternative option for students wanting to gain a hands-on approach to education. In summary, a traditional pattern in Scotland’s history and culture continues to shape its higher education system today.
Funding Opportunities
Higher education funding options vary throughout Scotland. In regards to research funding, three primary sources of income provide funding for Scotland’s institutions of higher learning: OST (the UK Department of Trade and Industry’s Office of Science and Technology), SFC (Scottish Funding Council), and charitable research donors. With OST, funding is granted for particular research projects and post-graduate research work throughout the United Kingdom. However, the Scottish Funding Council only administers research aid to Scotland’s colleges and universities (www.sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006). Private charitable donors usually have a set agenda for a particular project and fund schools on specific terms.
In regards to student funding in Scotland, otherwise known as student financial aid in the United States, the two primary contributors to funding are the Student Awards Agency for Scotland (SAAS), and the SFC. Though both provide a variety of funding options for Scottish students, the two centers are quite different with their approach. The SAAS, United Kingdom’s largest awards processing body, has a mission to provide support for eligible Scottish students in higher education by maintaining educational endowments, graduate endowments, childcare funds, hardship funds, and student loans for every Scottish university and college (www.student-support-saas.gov.uk, 23 June 2006). Agency goals for the 2006-2007 academic term include having installments of bursary or supplementary grants made payable at the start of the first term and paying tuition fees directly to the institution on the student’s behalf (student-support-saas.gov.uk, 23 June 2006).
SAAS support is available to any Scottish or European Union (EU) student entering a higher education course. Scottish and EU students are also entitled to free tuition up to £1,200 and pay a small portion back in the form of a graduate endowment based on parental income and time of matriculation. (student-support-saas.gov.uk, 23 June 2006). The current endowment rate for 2005-2006 is £2,216 (www.registry.ed.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006). Also available to Scottish students is the Young Students’ Bursary and additional loans for living expenses. The Young Students’ Bursary, similar to the Federal Pell Grant in the United States, allows Scottish students from low-income families to receive up to £2,455 (4,665 US dollars) for living expenses (student-support-saas.gov.uk, 23 June 2006). This grant does not have to be repaid. Other significant information includes a cap on total family income of approximately £31,000 and an age older than 25, which will make any Scottish student ineligible for the Young Students’ Bursary award (student-support-saas.gov.uk, 23 June 2006). For international students, additional loans are available depending on the type of major and number of courses taken. For U.S. citizens, a Stafford loan can be awarded for study at an institution located in the United Kingdom, providing the host institution adheres to the rules and regulations of the U.S. government in regards to the award (C. Lowther, personal communication, July 19, 2006). Scottish and EU students are also entitled to apply for loans with the current loan award system. If any Scottish or EU student makes less than £12,000 annual income after graduation, the loan amount is deferred. If the student continues to make less than £12,000 after a period of 25 years, the loan repayment amount is forgiven (C. Lowther, personal communication, July 19, 2006).
In reference to the social economic status of students who apply for funding, a similar formula for calculating student financial aid in the United States applies to the United Kingdom. Low-income families (£16,000 - £20,000) have a parent contribution (otherwise known as expected family contribution or EFC in the US) of zero (student-support-saas.gov.uk, 23 June 2006). The parent contribution rate increases as the total family income increases. Likewise, bursary amounts decrease as the parent contribution / total family income amount increases.
Other sources of funding such as hardship funds, childcare funds, and travel funds, are administered by the government to each Scottish college in an effort to help defray the cost of some services that low-income students would otherwise not be able to afford (www.caledonian.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006). Each college is allotted a certain amount of funding in which their student services office uses a specific formula to decide how much funding is awarded to each student on the basis of financial need. In order to be considered for a hardship fund; each student must apply with their individual institution (www.caledonian.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006). Although these funds are administered by the Scottish Parliament, the funds are considered private as the college is the ultimate deciding factor in how much hardship funding, if any, is awarded to a student.
In comparison to the award, grant, and loan opportunities from the SAAS, the United States continues to fund programs such as Federal Work-Study (FWS), Federal Perkins Loan, and the Federal Pell Grant (U.S. Department of Education Annual Report- 2005, www.ed.gov, 23 June 2006). The Pell Grant in particular held a maximum award of 4,050 dollars (£2,132) in 2005 (ed.gov, 23 June 2006). In regards to loans, each U.S. student is required to start repayment of a loan six months after graduation. If there is a case of hardship, each case will be heard individually and the loan may be deferred for a period of time, however, it will not be forgiven (ed.gov, 23 June 2006). It is not difficult to pinpoint the similarities and differences between the two nations although many will argue that an education in Scotland, financially, is much easier to obtain than in the United States.
Financial Perspective
The Scottish Funding Council is much different from most funding agencies in that they provide funding to increase and promote healthy development within Scotland’s institutions of higher learning. Established in 2005, SFC provides funding for 43 colleges and 20 higher education institutions in Scotland (sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006). In recent years, the council has provided over £1.3 billion in support for teaching, research, and facility restoration (sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006). Funding considerations before and after the creation of SFC consist of research grants, tuition fees, endowments, and council grants (SFC Financial Statistical Bulletin 3/2004, www.sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006). With a combined higher education income of £1,722 million in 2002-03, funding council grants made up 41.2 percent of the overall income in Scotland’s colleges while research grants came in second with 19.8 percent and tuition fees came in third with 19.4 percent of the total higher education income in Scotland (SFC Financial Statistical Bulletin 3/2004, www.sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006).
To better understand the impact that these funds bring to each Scottish university, the SFC Financial Statistical Bulletin (2003) reported that within the total percentage of income, the University of Edinburgh received 35.2 percent in funding council grants and 13.7 percent in tuition fees; Glasgow Caledonian University received 51.8 percent in grants and 15.9 percent in tuition fees; the University of Glasgow reported 40.6 percent in grants and 13.5 percent in tuition fees; Napier University with 50.3 percent in grants and 32.2 percent in tuition fees, and the University of St. Andrews received a total of 36.7 percent in funding council grants while maintaining 20.8 percent in tuition fees
(www.sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006).
Although the data represents a small sample size in terms of institutions, the findings represent how essential the Scottish Funding Council is to Scotland’s higher education sector. Although it is not specified in the literature, variations in the amount of funding for research grants and tuition fees may be influenced by strong academic programs or the public/private status of the institution. In reference to income by research grants, the majority of Scottish colleges report that biological and health related fields produce the most income, but, not far behind is engineering technology and mathematics (SFC Financial Statistical Bulletin 3/2004, www.sfc.ac.uk, 23 June. 2006).
Napier University
With approximately 13,000 students, Napier University is known for its vocational studies with an emphasis on business and industry. The university also works closely with poorer communities throughout Edinburgh to recruit first generation students. Tuition fees vary according to a student’s major and residency, but standard fees for full-time Scottish or EU students entering postgraduate studies is approximately £3,085 and the fee amount varies for international students; ranging from £8,000 to £10,000 (www.napier.ac.uk, 14 June. 2006). Undergraduate fees for Scottish and EU students are based on SAAS standards. Private funding opportunities include childcare funds, hardship funds, scholarships, and studentships; otherwise known as assistantships in the United States (www.napier.ac.uk, 14 June. 2006).
University of Edinburgh
Founded in 1583, the University of Edinburgh is known for its research facilities. With over 24,000 students coming from 140 countries around the world, the university prides itself on its rich history and closeness to the capital city of Scotland. In regards to tuition fees, Scottish and EU students pay approximately £1,100 annually while international students pay approximately £11,000 a year (www.registry.ed.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006). According to Ms. Rio Watt, Director of the Registry for the University of Edinburgh, private funding sources include hardship funds, alumni donations, private charities, and scholarships (R. Watt, personal communication, July 24, 2006). The University of Edinburgh plans to build more funding partnerships through alumni support in the future.
Glasgow Caledonian University
Originating back to 1875 with the Glasgow and West of Scotland College of Domestic Science, Glasgow Caledonian University received its institutional title in 1993 with the merge of Queen’s College and Glasgow Polytechnic College (Thompson & McCallum, 1998). With over 10,000 students, Glasgow Caledonian University focuses on vocational education with a hands-on approach. In regards to private funding; hardship funds, part-time post-graduate endowments, and scholarships are all included under student funding services at the university (J. Dawson, personal communication, July 19, 2006). Tuition fees vary according to a student’s major and residential status (Scottish, EU, or International). Average tuition fees for a Scottish or EU student is approximately £3,000 and £10,000 for international students (www.caledonian.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006).
University of Glasgow
Founded in 1451, the University of Glasgow is the second oldest University in Scotland. The university is known for its efforts in research, enterprise, and student debates. Private funding for the university includes work assistance, endowments from private donors, and student hardship funds (J. Alexander, personal communication, July 19, 2006). Current tuition fee rates for Scottish and EU students are £3,000 per year and approximately £8,500 per year for international students (www.gla.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006).
University of St. Andrews
Known throughout the United Kingdom as the oldest university in Scotland, the University of St. Andrews was recognized by the Pope as an institution of higher learning in 1413 and was famous for its studies in religion (D. Corner, personal communication, July 21, 2006). According to David Corner, Deputy Principal for St. Andrews, the student body consists of approximately 5,000 undergraduates and 2,000 post-graduate students with roughly 30 percent coming from Scotland, 30 percent coming from other EU countries, and 30 percent international; representing nearly 97 countries outside of Europe (D. Corner, personal communication, July 21, 2006).
In regards to funding, current EU and Scottish students pay approximately £3,000 in tuition fees while international students pay £15,000 (www.st-andrews.ac.uk, 20 July. 2006). For private funds, Mr. Corner notes that the university awards hardship funds, charitable funds from private donors, student endowments, scholarships, and “ransom studentships” in which partners throughout Europe and abroad will sponsor a student’s educational efforts based on certain criteria such as nationality and state of residency (U.S.) (D. Corner, personal communication, July 21, 2006).
Government Influence
Universities in Scotland are seen as autonomous bodies in that each institution works independently in their own private manner with little influence by the government, but, each institution is provided public funds from the Scottish Parliament. In comparison, the United Stated requires that each U.S. institution receiving public or federal funding to follow the rules and regulations administered by the Department of Education (www.ed.gov, 23 June. 2006).
According to Dr. Bruce Nelson from the University of Edinburgh, funding was first introduced in the United Kingdom in 1919 following World War I and was administered by the University Grants Committee (B. Nelson, personal communication, July 25, 2006). In 1997, the government introduced student loans with a maximum amount of £4,000 as well as the graduate endowment; a payment made upfront shortly after graduation. If a student came from a low-income family, the endowment was waived. In 1997, the endowment rate stood at £1,250 and rose to £2,145 in 1999 (B. Nelson, personal communication, July 25, 2006). In 1999, the Scottish Parliament issued free tuition to Scottish and EU students, but left other students in the UK paying tuition fees, which started a political debate in the United Kingdom (B. Nelson, personal communication, July 25, 2006).
The debate over tuition fees is still prevalent today as the Higher Education Act was introduced in 2004, which allowed colleges to collect top-up fees in England and Northern Ireland of up to £3,000 starting during the 2006-2007 academic year (MacDonell, 2006). MacDonell (2006) also notes that this change in funding will affect Scottish universities greatly in that English universities would have a greater income from the top-up fees that could be used to upgrade university research/lab facilities, while Scottish universities would lack the extra funding, thus losing faculty members to their English counterparts. The benefits of having advanced technology would persuade professors and scientists at Scottish universities to move to universities in England and Northern Ireland, thus depriving the students in Scotland of a quality education (MacDonell, 2006).
Though the tuition fee debate (which does not include room and board) continues to be on the minds of every Scottish student, the Scottish Parliament is considering different methods to provide a quality education at a low cost. It may be that Scotland will do as their English counterparts did and introduce top-up fees, but the issue is still up for debate. What is certain is that Scotland is moving towards an economic based approach to higher education (Alexander, 2000). Alexander (2000) adopts this approach from the United States higher education model where a link between higher education and governmental influence exists primarily to devise a way to stretch public funding in order to serve more students as well as gain a profit in return (Alexander, 2000). The end result, however, is that yes, more students are reached, but each student receives less funding for education.
Implications for Future Research
There is no question that higher education funding options continue to play a vital role in Scotland’s higher education system. Although literature supports the government’s efforts to support education, current information is needed in order to understand a society’s need for educators as well as a student’s need for funding. Future research in how the Scottish Parliament’s new plan for funding will affect Scotland’s colleges and universities may bring some insight to higher education administers who wish to obtain funding stability for their respective institutions of higher learning. Current research on each university’s private endowment or scholarship opportunities would also bring some insight into how much funding is available per student for each university.
Also significant is the voice of the student. Little research suggests that the interests of the students are considered when debating over the issue of increasing student fees. Research on the economic outlook of student attendance and retention may bring a different perspective to how funding affects higher education in Scotland and abroad.
In conclusion, it is important to remember that financial affairs and funding brings with it both positive and negative aspects to higher education and it is with careful consideration of both parties; administrators and students alike, that a consensus can be obtained.
References
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Erin Scott
Boston College
Applying to Medical School in Scotland and in the United States: A Comparison
Nigel McGregor is a sixteen year old high school junior who is at a stage in his development when he is beginning to consider his goals and aspirations for his future career. Nigel has excelled academically throughout his elementary, middle, and high school years and is also very active in sports and student government. Science has always been a strong subject for Nigel, and he is very interested in biology and physical science. Nigel has spent many of his Saturdays over the last three years volunteering at his local hospital, and this experience has really sparked his interest toward a career in medicine. As a junior in high school Nigel is aware that he will be spending his senior year applying to college. He is interested in a school that will offer a premedical curriculum, but he is also interested in learning about the possibility of pursuing a medical degree abroad, specifically in Scotland where his family is originally from, and where his grandparents still reside. As an American citizen born in the United States, Nigel would be considered an international applicant at a Scottish University. This designation poses a variety of challenges for Nigel in admissions and eligibility, financial matters, and also in his ability to practice medicine in the United States if he chooses to return to the U.S. following degree completion. This paper will investigate Nigel’s options as a student seeking to attend either a U.S. or a Scottish medical school. It will consider the differences as well as the similarities of both respected paths toward becoming a physician.
To begin it is necessary to compare the primary and secondary systems of education in Scotland to the elementary and high school grades in the United States to determine where Nigel is positioned within each country’s academic hierarchy. Scotland’s early education system begins at age three in what is called “pre-school.” This instructive stage is not compulsory, though every three and four year old in Scotland is entitled to a free, part-time placement in a pre-school setting, and in 2005, 81-98% of all three and four year olds attended some pre-school education (Association of Heads, Teachers, and Deputes in Scotland [AHDS], 2006, p. 2). According to the Association of Heads, Teachers, and Deputes in Scotland “children generally learn to work and play well with other children in pre-school centers, and the level of progress made offers a sound basis upon which primary school can build” (AHDS, 2006, p. 2). In the United States pre-school education is elective as well; however, unlike in Scotland, all citizens are not entitled to these programs; in fact individual funding for programs such as Head Start, which is a child-focused program whose goal is to “increase the school readiness of young children in low-income families by providing the means necessary to attend,” are based on income levels and are not offered to or available for all interested candidates (U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, 2006). A system of education such as the one implemented in Scotland that provides preschool education to all its citizens supplies both necessary child care and developmental enhancement which will prove in effect and time to best serve the larger society.
Regardless of whether students opt to attend pre-school, by age five or six in both Scotland and the United States, all students begin compulsory primary or elementary school. In Scotland “pupils follow a broad curriculum informed by national guidance, and the class teacher is responsible for finding out, understanding, and meeting pupils’ pastoral and learning needs.” (AHDS, 2006, p. 3) Similarly, in the United States students follow a general curriculum, which is sequentially patterned and age appropriate for each grade level. Teachers not only attend to the needs of the students within their classroom, but also rely on the additional staff in place within elementary schools, such as guidance counselors and social workers for “pastoral” concerns, which are more personal and specific to the individual student. Students in both Scotland and the U.S. attend primary or elementary school roughly from age five to twelve, and this level of education prepares and equips them to succeed in the Scottish secondary environment or the American middle school.
Middle, or Secondary education, is where the difference becomes apparent between the two country’s educational systems. “Secondary education in Scotland does extend from age 12 to 18 but it is not compulsory after the age of 16. Lower secondary education (age 12 to 16) is divided into two stages, the first two years (S1 and S2) provide a general education and the second two years (S3 and S4) contain specialist elements and vocational education. Upper secondary education (age 16 to 18, S5 and S6) covers the final two years of secondary school and prepares pupils for vocational training, employment, or higher education” (Scottish Executive Publications, 2003, p.3-4). Comparatively, in the United States students enroll in middle school for three years following their elementary training in preparation for the four additional years of high school necessary to enter an institution of higher learning. Unique to Scotland is the National Qualification system of assessment, which is used to evaluate and determine that Scottish students fully grasp the material presented at each grade level. “Standard Grades are generally taken over the third and fourth years at secondary schools, with an exam at the end of the fourth year, and National Courses are available from Intermediate 1 to Advanced Higher and consist of three subject-related National Units, which are assessed by the class teacher or lecturer, plus an external assessment. To gain a full Course award students have to pass all the Unit assessments as well as the comprehensive exam” (Scottish Executive Education Department, 2006, p.4). While the United States does not hold its public school students to these same monitored standards, a recent piece of legislation implemented by President George W. Bush, titled the No Child Left Behind Act, has led the government to uphold higher standards and greater level of accountability throughout the country’s public school systems. “The No Child Left Behind Act requires the use of assessments in each state that measure what children know and learn in reading and math in grades 3-8. Student progress and achievement is measured according to tests that are given to every child, every year” (U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p.1). Monitoring students’ progress and development in the early and later stages of their education ensures that both countries are preparing their students for success and are encouraging further academic progression.
Because Nigel is sixteen years of age and in his junior year at an American public high school, it would be difficult to make a clear association with where he would fit into the Scottish educational hierarchy, which exposes the first complication Nigel would face when applying to a Scottish medical school directly following his high school graduation. In the United States, medicine is not offered as an undergraduate discipline. Students must complete an undergraduate degree from an accredited university before they apply to medical school. This varies from the Scottish system which allows students to study medicine directly following their fifth or sixth year of secondary education or “advanced higher,” making some medical school applicants as young as seventeen. In the United States an undergraduate degree is required for medical school application as it lays a solid foundation for learning and a broader understanding of the needs and issues faced by our large and dynamic society. The time spent gaining an undergraduate degree prior to medical school can also allow a student to gain valuable skills and experience in a medical setting and can help clarify if medicine is an appropriate career path.
As in the United States, criteria for admission into a Scottish medical school includes work or volunteer experience in a medical or health care environment, evidence of personal motivation and leadership qualities shown through hobbies and extracurricular activities, and most importantly academic achievement, specifically in the areas of biology and chemistry. Students who lack sufficient course work in these areas prior to application (within the four required years of secondary education or the “additional higher” years of study) have the option to complete a “pre-medical year” at university, lasting thirty weeks and including instruction in the areas of chemistry, biology, and physics (NHS Careers, 2004). Similarly, while a large majority of U.S. medical school applicants complete a science related undergraduate degree, those who do not have a substantial background in chemistry, physics, and biology also must complete this core academic preparation at either a community college, an accredited university, or through a structured “post-baccalaureate” program similar to the Scottish “pre-medical year.”
While Nigel may have originally pondered the idea of attending university in Scotland directly following his high school graduation, he may realistically need to consider obtaining an undergraduate degree prior to applying to a Scottish medical school in order to attain the necessary qualifications for entry, since the science courses he completed in his American high school do not correspond with the Scottish secondary standards. By gaining this necessary credential, however, Nigel will unavoidably find himself up against another challenge for admission. While an undergraduate degree and work experience can add strength to a U.S. medical school application, the time it takes an international student to complete this prerequisite can in turn become a detriment to a Scottish medical school application. Scottish medical schools claim to welcome applications from “mature students” who hold undergraduate degrees; however, they also acknowledge that “mature students will have a shorter length of service to offer the profession,” and many state clearly in their admission policy “that while there are no formal set age limits for entry to medical school, admissions will take account of the length of training in relation to the length of service the candidate could provide” (NHS Careers, 2004, p.1).
This imbalance between Scottish and international prerequisite coursework could be equalized within the application process by utilizing another means for gauging a student’s ability and preparedness for medical school. In the United States medical school admission is based on a variety of components, academics being just one. Another factor that is strongly weighed by American medical schools in their decision process is the student’s score on the MCAT, or the Medical College Admission Test. “The MCAT is a standardized, multiple-choice examination designed to assess problem solving, critical thinking, and writing skills in addition to the examinee’s knowledge of science concepts and principles prerequisite to the study of medicine. Scores are reported in the areas of verbal reasoning, physical sciences, biological sciences, and writing” (Association of American Medical Colleges [AAMC], 2006, p.1). A similar tool, titled the UKCAT or UK Clinical Aptitude Test, has been implemented just this summer (2006) by a consortium of UK medical schools to ensure that the candidates selected for entry have the appropriate mental abilities, attitudes and professional behaviors required for new doctors to be successful in their clinical careers” (UKCAT Consortium, 2006, p.1). While the UKCAT differs from the MCAT in that it does not contain any premedical curriculum or science content, it does measure cognitive ability and other practical attributes that are considered valuable for future health care professionals, through tests of their verbal, quantitative, and abstract reasoning. Both the MCAT and the UKCAT could be effective mechanisms for gauging one’s readiness for medical school despite the origin of their academic upbringing. Scottish medical schools could accept American and other international students such as Nigel earlier in their careers if they were willing to give more weight to these indicators in their admissions decisions.
For Nigel, the inability to convey his corresponding ability or academic equivalency may not be the only obstacle that would prevent his acceptance into a Scottish medical school, in fact Nigel’s American origin alone could be a hindrance for entry, despite his otherwise strong application. Thus, it is important to examine the admission standards of the Scottish universities and consider the reasoning behind some of the stipulations and quotas in place to maintain a majority Scottish population within these specific programs. While international students such as Nigel may be interested in studying medicine in Scotland, they are less likely to remain in Scotland following the completion of their medical degree. An international student that is accepted at a Scottish medical school may complete their degree and one required practical postgraduate year in Scotland, but then could likely return to their country of origin to take any additional coursework or any examinations necessary for authorization to practice in an alternative geographical area. This is a concern for the Scottish parliament since a recent survey by the Federation of Royal Colleges of Physicians revealed that “Scotland needs another 400 consultants to cope with increasing patient levels” (B. Brady & R. Gray, 2005, p.1). Scotland is facing a developing aging population over the age of forty in combination with a decline in overall population growth. “An older population means more ill health and the reduction in new growth means there will be a smaller cohort of younger people from which to recruit medical staff” (K. Calman & M. Paulson-Ellis, 2004, p. 5). Therefore, the loss of a Scottish trained physician means the loss of an essential product and part of the Scottish health care maintenance system. In 2001 the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council allotted 900 places as the intake or admission target for the five Scottish medical schools combined. It was specified, “No more than 7.5% of these places could be used for students paying overseas fees, and the remainder would be funded by the Funding Council for home fee students, (which includes students from the rest of the European Union)” (K. Calman & M. Paulson-Ellis, 2004, p. 12). This decision was made after the results of a study following the 1988 Scottish medical cohort cited that graduates who were domiciled in Scotland at entry are 2.25 times more likely to be working in Scotland eleven years later than those domiciled elsewhere (K. Calman & M. Paulson-Ellis, 2004, p. 13). It is evident that Scotland’s growing need for physicians will not be met with adequate medical staff unless these admission guidelines are upheld, and the country’s medical schools continue to train and deliver a committed and long lasting supply of resident doctors.
This necessary apportionment does hold a wager for the Scottish education system however. While there is a clear need to maintain admission quotas in favor of domiciled students to assure that the larger needs of the Scottish society are met, it is also advantageous to the Universities to accept international students as a means for collecting additional funds from their continually increasing non-domestic tuition rate. While Scottish citizens are entitled to a free higher education, courtesy of the Students Awards Agency for Scotland, visitors must pay a substantial cost to obtain a degree from a Scottish university. According to the Scottish Executive and Lifelong Learning Minister, Nicol Stephen, “under provision of the Further and Higher Education Act which passed in April, the 2006 university tuition cost for students outside Scotland is to rise to 1,700 pounds per year, which is an increase of 500 pounds since just last year, and for medical students in particular tuition will increase to around 2,700 pounds per year since the demand for spaces is already abundantly high” (BBC News, 2005, p.1). Regardless of this desirable monetary benefit, however, it is important for the Scottish universities to recognize that foreign students such as Nigel may also absorb a space in a program, a seat in a classroom, a practical or experiential placement, or a position in a lab that could otherwise be filled by an individual who plans to remain in Scotland following graduation, thus contributing to needs and advancement of the Scottish society. According to Mr. Stephens, “It is important to strike the right balance between protecting the interests of Scottish domiciled students, and to ensure that Scotland continues to be an attractive destination for all students” (BBC News, 2005, p.2).
Some practical strategies have been outlined by the Scottish executive in their comprehensive 2004 report, “Review of Basic Medical Education in Scotland,” for ensuring that a sufficient number of native-born candidates continue to sustain the medical school applicant pool in Scotland. The plan includes 1) developing initiatives to work with schools in disadvantaged areas to identify potential candidates early in their careers, followed by active mentoring and encouragement to keep these students on track, 2) developing foundation courses to bring able students with potential up to an appropriate standard for entry, and 3) building collaborative links with Further Education colleges whose existing programs traditionally prepare individuals to pursue health care roles such as nursing and medical technicians (K. Calman & M. Paulson-Ellis, 2004). Relaxed entry requirements and increased funding from the Department of Health and the Higher Education Funding Council for England to add more available places in the medical schools for native students have also been discussed as methods for meeting the country’s foreseen need of qualified physicians.
Because of the relatively small size of Scotland in comparison to the United States there are just five medical schools in operation. Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, and Glasgow provide full five-year courses for a medical degree, and St. Andrews currently provides a degree in Medical Science in three years, which is then followed by the clinical part of a medical degree, which is completed at another university, most frequently the University of Manchester in England (K. Calman & M. Paulson-Ellis, 2004). This manageable group of institutions allows for a unique collaboration and structure for benchmarking curriculum and assessment, distributing research, and assigning practical and experiential placements. While each university does exist independently, the Scottish Executive has made plans to develop a Board for Medical Education, which will oversee admissions, medical education, clinical skills training, and research for all five universities in order to strategically guarantee that “the medical schools work with each other to maximize the use of facilities and ensure a rational and equitable distribution between them” (K. Calman & M. Paulson-Ellis, 2004, p. 30). In the United States a similar board, The Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), is in place to manage the 125 MD-granting U.S. medical schools. The AAMC “strives to set a national agenda for medical education, biomedical research, and health care by strengthening the quality of medical education and training and integrating these elements into the provision of healthcare” (AAMC, 2006, p.1). They do this by serving as a liaison between organizations such as the Electronic Residency Application Service (ERAS) or the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP) whose goals are to match students with valuable internship and residency placements and by providing services to applicants such as the American Medical College Application System, (AMCAS), which coordinates the country’s online medical school application process.
AMCAS manages the intake of all online student applications, combines this information with other essential components of the application, including the student’s score on the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT), and disperses this information to the appropriate schools designated by the student. Similar to this American application system, admission to medical school in Scotland is coordinated by the UK College Application System, or UCAS, which is also a “centralized online system that processes applications for full time undergraduate courses at UK universities and colleges” (UK College Application System [UCAS], 2006, p.1). This comprehensive system will soon work with the Board for Medical Education in Scotland to ensure that overlap in both application and acceptance is not an impediment for the five Scottish medical schools. For Nigel his UCAS application will be reviewed and weighed by the Board’s administration, and his acceptance or denial will be based on an overall assessment of his aptitude and ability in correlation with the need and availability of placement for an international student such as himself. In contrast, because AMCAS is responsible for 125 U.S. medical schools, this type of thorough analysis and assignment of each individual student is less feasible and does not allow schools to correspond or strategize about each applicant.
If, after completing his necessary preliminary undergraduate work, Nigel was accepted at a Scottish medical school, he would follow the same education and training laid out for all doctors in the UK, leading to a Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery; and after completing this degree in medicine he would follow a supervised, structured one-year pre-registration period as a house officer in a general hospital before becoming a licensed physician. In the United States, Nigel would also complete a four-year medical degree following his undergraduate work, with his last two years spent in clinical rotation. Both paths would also require continuing education and professional development following this initial and basic medical education and training.
Medical schools such as the University of Glasgow and the University of Edinburgh rank highly world wide by making medical breakthroughs in research and clinical practice and by training and maintaining admired and respected faculty. While Nigel may face certain challenges in his attempt to secure acceptance at these schools, if admitted, he would receive a first rate education, acquire relevant experience, and would be recognized globally as a qualified physician. Nigel should continue to research the individual schools in both Scotland and America that he is interested in applying to and should also continue to stay current regarding the changing regulations and procedures for application in both countries. It would be in his best interest to speak with his high school guidance counselor about his interest in studying abroad, as well as consult with admissions representatives both in Scotland and in the U.S. to discuss his strategy and eligibility within each region.
Regardless of where Nigel ultimately ends up for medical school, there is a universal need for physicians, and either country would be fortunate to both prepare and maintain him within their education and healthcare systems. Nigel has an important year filled with many critical decisions in front of him, but the future holds great things for him and other promising young adults who have made the decision to pursue a career in medicine.
References
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Kristen M. Goehausen
University of Kansas
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