Spring/Fall 2005
Book Reviews:
reviewed by Beau Seagraves
reviewed by Jenny McDowell
Perspectives:
by Linda Jameison, Amy Thompson & Courtney Brown
by Linda Jameison
College of the Overwhelmed: The Campus Mental Health Crisis and What to Do About It
Beau Seagraves
Presbyterian College
Kadison, R. & DiGeronimo, T.F. (2004). College of the Overwhelmed: The Campus Mental Health Crisis and What to Do About It. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The number of students arriving on college campuses with mental health concerns has increased at an alarming rate in the last decade. Students face a variety of pressures, which serve as a source of anxiety and contribute to already high levels of stress in the typical college student. Thus, to confront these issues, colleges have become more involved in treating their students who suffer from mental health problems. In the end, administrators, parents, and students must collaborate to help combat this widespread concern on college campuses today.
Dr. Richard Kadison and Ms. Theresa Foy DiGeronimo address these issues in their book, College of the Overwhelmed: The Campus Mental Health Crisis and What to Do About It. Kadison, the chief of the Mental Health Service at Harvard University Health Services, and DiGeronimo, a prolific author in the education field, take a personal approach in focusing on what pressures students face and how they cope with their mental health concerns. Throughout the book, the authors use firsthand accounts from Kadison’s own patients, who share their stories of the problems they encountered in college.
The authors offer a balanced perspective using language that typical “lay” peoplestudents, administrators, and parents can understand. The realistic and practical focus of the book makes it attractive for college administrators, who work with students each day, and parents of college students, who need to understand the reality their children may experience when they go to school.
Because the book is meant to be understood by such a wide population, mental health officials on college campuses may not find the information they need to more effectively address these issues with their students. Instead, the authors intended for this book “to open a dialogue (among parents, students, and college counselors and administrators), get us talking, and suggest ways we all can confront these facts and do something about them” (1). Ultimately, college counselors may need to find more specialized texts or resources that would specifically address particular disorders or issues.
The book is divided into two main parts, with Part One focusing on “The Problems” and Part Two focusing on “The Solution.” In Part One, the authors outline the various stressors that impact a college student’s life. In Part Two, the authors speak directly to the three main constituencies (college administrators, parents, and students) and explain what each group can do to address the problems that students are facing daily.
In Chapter One, “Normal Developmental Issues,” Kadison and DiGeronimo discuss the developmental processes and changes that most college students go through once they begin their college careers. In the section on identity development, the authors articulate the idea that students are expected to seek independence at a time when they most need extra support. This sense of isolation can be exacerbated with added societal expectations of developing relationships and exploring one’s sexuality.
In Chapters Two (“Pressure and Competition”) and Three (“Financial Worries and Social Fears”), the authors identify several subcultures within the college student population and highlight the major external pressures they encounter. For example, in addition to already high levels of stress associated with transitioning to an American university, international students must deal with legal issues that allow them to stay in the country. Other students face high expectations from their parents, who often put undue pressure on their children to succeed and not make mistakes while in college. The authors argue, “this culture of high expectations sets up a classic situation for stress and early burnout” (43). Moreover, some students fear being able to continue to pay for college. This added pressure, coupled with their other social fears, compound the already volatile environment in which they find themselves.
Chapter Four, “Crisis on Campus,” gives the reader an overview of the clinical diagnoses that students may deal with in the college environment. This chapter, with its surface level descriptions that are easy to understand, serves as an excellent resource for anyone who lives or works with college students. The authors provide warning signs for the classic disorders, including Anxiety Disorders, Eating Disorders, and Sleep Disorders. They also discuss Depression and Suicide, two complex topics that they have been reduced to several pages. The apparent goal is to provide enough information for the readers to understand the larger issues surrounding these topics while not bombarding them with too many facts and details, which are ultimately left to trained clinicians to decipher and understand.
Chapters Five (“What are Colleges Doing about the Crisis? And What More Should be Done?”), Six (“What Can Parents Do?”), and Seven (“For Students Only”) address how these individual groups are dealing with this crisis on college campuses. Colleges are faced with decisions regarding the level of mental health care to provide their students. Parents need practical skills to communicate with their children, who find themselves in a new environment needing their support. The authors promote using parents as allies in this struggle to recognize problems in their children. Finally, students must learn their own set of skills to manage new experiences, opportunities, feelings, and attitudes. Without these skills and knowledge of how to lessen their likelihood for developing a mental health problem, students may find themselves needing treatment or counseling early in their college careers.
This book provides an excellent overview of the major mental health issues facing college students. Although the lack of depth in explaining the major issues may prevent mental health professionals from fully embracing this book, the personal accounts, resource information, and statistics provided are very useful for parents, administrators, and students. I would recommend this book for anyone interested in gaining a cursory yet focused perspective of the problems with which college students struggle.
Pledged: The Secret Life of Sororities
Jenny McDowell
Stony Brook University
Robbins, A. (2004). Pledged: The secret life of sororities. New York: Hyperion.
Alexandra Robbins, author of Pledged: The Secret Life of Sororities, asserts that she set out to write a book that explores the dynamics of female relationships. As the title suggests, she does this by exploring sorority culture. In the introduction she writes that the women’s issues that are raised in the book can be found throughout higher education, not just Greek Life. Unfortunately this point is lost throughout the rest of the book. Instead of a book focusing on female relationships, the reader is given a 339 page description of why sorority life should not exist in the 21st century. Student affairs professionals should consider this book as providing one message, and maintain perspective about the many deeper issues facing young women today that the book vividly details.
Pledged follows four sorority women at a large state institution for one academic year. While one young woman is African American, they all belong to predominantly white Greek organizations. To protect the identity of the women she chronicles in the book, Robbins does not reveal how she chose them or what role she played in interacting with them throughout the year. The author does a good job at selecting four diverse women who choose to be in a sorority for different reasons and have varying involvement within the sorority. Along with going to fraternity parties and sorority recruitment, these four women deal with very serious issues including drug use, date rape, abusive relationships, low self esteem and eating disorders. She supplements their accounts of these issues by including interviews with other sorority women throughout the country and with information she gathered from attending national Greek conferences. Additionally, Robbins looks at their Instant Messenger away messages, a unique way to stay abreast to what the women were doing or thinking. While she did not rely solely on the messages for the story, it was an interesting way to make the book relatable to today’s students.
After chronicling the year of these women, Robbins lays out her suggestions for improving the Greek system. While most of this advice is directed to national Greek organizations, she does present ways in which universities could improve their own Greek communities. One suggestion is that universities have more supervision over their Greek organizations. Robbins proposes that ways universities could do this is by moving recruitment to spring semester or by withholding campus resources if a sorority does not comply with university regulations. In her opinion, universities have condoned the behaviors displayed in her book by not taking an active role in the organizations and by allowing Greek alumni to dictate how the chapters run.
It is vitally important to have student affairs professionals play a large part in these organizations. Student affairs professionals are trained to have the students’ best interest in mind, as opposed to an advisor from the national headquarters who may be more concerned with the sorority’s image or how much money it is bringing into national organization. Robbins even makes the bold claim that universities should find advisors who would be willing to serve as mentor and adviser to these students despite low pay and long hours, a job description that will probably ring true for most Greek Advisors. This book does present some of the current challenges Greek systems face that are helpful for any student affairs professional to be aware of. Unfortunately Robbins seems to suggest, at the end of her book, that the problems identified could be fixed relatively quickly.
Since its publication in 2004, the book has been openly opposed by many members the Greek community. They are angered by the fact that the author revealed many chapters’ secret rituals. Additionally, most sorority members that this reviewer talked to about the book are quick to point out that the book does not portray an accurate picture of what Greek Life is all about. While these individuals may have valid concerns, administrators in the Greek community are missing a great opportunity to use this book as a way to discuss issues that their members may be dealing with, such as drug and alcohol abuses that abound in this book.
All of the events that occur in this book happen in one year, at one institution, to only four women. One particularly disturbing issue is that two of the four women in this book are sexually assaulted during the year. The way the information is portrayed would lead the reader to assume that two out of four sorority women will be assaulted, yet facts are not provided to indicate whether this is an accurate representation or not. Even if raising these issues were not the author’s main intent, it does not discredit what can be gained from Pledged. The issues of abuses and disorders that young women are facing on college campuses are happening in sorority houses, residence halls, and off campus. Therefore, I would recommend that student affairs professionals read this book for the broader implications, not for an accurate account of what is like to be in a sorority.
Linda Jameison
Presbyterian College
Amy Thompson
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Courtney Brown
Foxfire Technologies Corporation
Disengagement: Student Athletes in Transition
Student athlete identity development follows a similar path as non-athlete student identity development. Both students enter the collegiate environment with expectations for academic and personal growth. Student athletes have additional expectations of possessing athletic achievements that are more than the traditional assumption of physical growth and competence. These athletic expectations are countered by the eventuality of ending their organized athletic participation because of graduation, injury, or being cut from the team. The transition impacts the identity of the student athlete in a variety of unique ways. As student athletes, their identity is influenced by being a student athlete. Their athletic identity impacts their academic development, social skills and vocational development. In summary, it affects their total development: psychosocially and cognitively.
This article reviews the issues of identity development for student athletes, explores how student development theory can be utilized for facilitating an understanding of the issue, and identifies existing best practice models that promote student athlete development. Student affairs professionals must be concerned with facilitating and promoting holistic growth and development of all students; however, it is evident that many student athletes leave higher education without a well-rounded personal identity and overall development. To make the future transition of disengagement an easier and smoother one for student athletes, student affairs professionals must take the lead in working with and encouraging student athletes’ development.
The Transition of Disengagement
There are two different types of athletic disengagement: the anticipated exit, such as ending sports participation with graduation; and the unanticipated exit, such as termination due to injury, being cut from the team, or sudden termination of the athletic program. The student’s response to athletic disengagement can be very different and vary from individual to individual. Blinde and Stratta (1993) concluded that some student athletes have experienced psychological and social difficulties in these transitions, while others view the transition with optimism. Kim McGreevy, a graduate student at Pennsylvania State University, a former collegiate athlete herself, and currently a coach, says it best:
To some, the process is smooth as they look forward to a new phase in life. However,
to many student-athletes, the transition out of sport can be a turbulent one. For the
better part of their lives, student-athletes have been just that—athletes…As student-
athletes disengage from athletics, these institutions must recognize and facilitate this
transition out, much as they facilitated the transition in (McGreevy, n.d.).
Anticipated exits from athletics are much easier for the athlete, since athletes foresee that they will be leaving the sports arena and can prepare themselves for that transition. Unanticipated exits, however, can be very traumatic. Blinde and Stratta (1993) concluded that many athletes’ responses to an involuntary transition could be described by Kubler-Ross’ theory of death and dying. They noted that these athletes may need “special assistance” during their transition and that these athletes experienced both physiological and psychological effects. Blinde and Stratta (1993) also found that the athletes in this transition benefit from a support system that offers assistance and understanding.
The Athletic Identity
Many students initially get involved with sports at an early age, and involvement is encouraged because it contributes to personal development. Physical activity, teamwork, competition, and leadership contribute to increasing an individual’s self-concept and self-esteem (Baillie & Danish, 1992). For many athletes, however, as they focus more on their sport and try to excel at their competitive performances, their sport becomes a larger part of their identity.
Younger athletes are internally motivated by athletics, as they participate in sports for fun, socializing, maintaining physical fitness, achieving success, and improving skills (Baillie & Danish, 1992). During high school, the pressure to perform well increases and motivation begins to shift to external motivations, which can negatively affect the individual’s development. Baillie & Danish (1992) report that internal motivation is more likely to have positive and lasting effects on development. When athletics is the primary element of personal identity, the individual may feel there is a gap in their identity when they are not participating in a sport (Homan, 2004). Baillie & Danish (1992) noted that concerns exist when individuals shift from internal motivation to external motives for participating in sports, as this shifts development from positive to negative.
Blann (1985) found that at collegiate and professional levels, sports competition focuses on winning. This emphasis on winning places more expectations of athletic excellence on the student athlete and increases the potential to hinder non-athletic development. Student athletes who expect to have a career in professional sports often focus harder on attaining their athletic goals, which can impede their personal identity (Baillie & Danish, 1992). As a result, athletes who desire and strive to become the best in their sport narrow their focus and limit their nonathletic development.
While they often excel athletically, the process of disengagement is more difficult when they do not become professional athletes, drop out due to injury, or even retire from their professional sports career. “Many elite and professional athletes have achieved their success through dedication and perseverance, and although this single-mindedness is often associated with athletic excellence, it may be a factor that also results in a difficult adjustment when competition is over" (Baillie & Danish, 1992, p. 94). When these athletes experience disengagement, they let go of a large part of their identity and struggle to replace what was lost.
Student Development Theory
The college student athlete’s ability to progress through various transitions and growth opportunities can be addressed by Chickering’s Theory of Psychosocial Identity Development (Chickering, 1987) and Schlossberg’s Transition Theory (Schlossberg, Waters & Goodman, 1995). Current literature on disengagement mentions Chickering’s theory briefly, but other literature contains theories on death and dying, athletic retirement, and gerontology to understand how athletes experience personal development when athletics are no longer a primary component of their identity (Baillie & Danish, 1992; Blann, 1985; Harris, 2003).
As previously stated, the student athlete’s identity development begins as soon as he or she becomes involved in sports. The element of athletics in their identity becomes an intrinsic value because participation begins at a young age and continues until retirement (Baillie & Danish, 1992). Being labeled an athlete becomes a central role for the individual. This role takes precedence over academics and future career plans. If the athlete is injured, the loss of participation can be equated with the death of a part of their identity. If the student athlete does not have proper support from his or her athletic trainer, peer group, family, faculty and/or student affairs professionals, the athlete’s personal development can be impeded. This role confusion can be explained using Kubler-Ross stages of bereavement (Harris, 2003). These four stages of denial, anger, depression, and acceptance can be associated with graduation and the end of college athletic participation.
Graduation can be perceived as athletic retirement to the student athlete. Baillie &
Danish (1992) noted that this perspective could be examined using the gerontology theory of Social Breakdown of Kuypers & Bengston. This theory is used to examine how the removal of the external identity label of student athlete can lead to social withdrawal. To forestall a negative self-concept cycle, the individual’s sense of identity is expanded through social reconstruction programs in which the student athlete rebuild a social network separate from athletic associations. Baillie & Danish (1992) suggest that the change in identity can have a positive result if the student athlete’s self concept goes through a process of social reconstruction by becoming involved in other activities that support new identity development.
Chickering’s Theory of Psychosocial Identity Development
Incorporating the concept of loss based on disengagement, Chickering’s theory can enhance program development for the student athlete and his or her personal development. In creating programs, attention to the environmental factors of institutional objectives, student and faculty interaction, the teaching practices, the student community, and the student development programs as they relate to athletes must be considered.
The institution’s athletic objectives directly impact the student’s sense of self. As the student athlete works through the second vector, managing emotions, the environmental factor of the institutional objective should be considered in the student’s personal development. If the institution is perceived to value the success of athletic competition more than the success of academic accomplishments, the student athlete’s status is based on the team’s win/loss ratio. “(T)he student-athlete is actually handicapped due to this special status. This handicap is emotional and social” (Ogden, 2002, p. 482). Managing emotions becomes a challenge for students when they need to find appropriate release for anxiety or exuberance depending on the outcome of the game. These feelings threaten emotional development because they “can drain a student’s energy and motivation” (Harris, 2003, p. 78). Student affairs personnel must help student athletes work through the mixed messages they receive, understand the institution’s athletic objectives, and assist athletes to be able to differentiate and express their emotions appropriately.
Another environmental factor identified by Chickering is student and faculty interaction. For the student athlete, their primary faculty relationship is with their coach. The opportunity for the student to interact with the faculty and other administrative personnel in various situations will impact the student’s ability to master confidence, both physically and socially. Student athletes come to college with a sense of physical competence because they have been accepted to college because of their physical abilities (Rich, 2001). Acceptance based on physical abilities increases confidence and increases intellectual and interpersonal competence. However, students need differing types of evaluation and interaction with faculty to establish their intellectual and interpersonal competence.
Wright (2001) outlined how tutors can have great success with student athletes if they construct their sessions by creating an atmosphere of mutual trust, allowing the student the risk of failure not provided in the sports arena. Wright (2001) identified potential interventions that tutors use to help student athletes gain confidence in their academic abilities and to create a productive tutor/student relationship. For example, if the student is reluctant to ask for help, the tutor patiently helps the student think critically by asking questions and validating the answers the student athlete develops on his or her own. This relationship should also address the student athlete’s learning style. “Student athletes like challenges that fit their capabilities” (Ogden, 2002, p. 483). Athletes have an innate sense of competition, which must be considered as an element of their ability to process academic information. By creating academic challenges formatted to the student’s learning style, they will develop an intellectual competence that mirrors their physical competence.
The student’s interaction with faculty also impacts moving through autonomy toward interdependence. This competency promotes the student athlete’s opportunity to distance themselves from their need for parental approval. “A successful progression witnesses college students becoming increasingly responsible for their actions and freeing themselves from the need to be rescued” (Harris, 2003, p. 79). By having active relationships with faculty, students receive various types of feedback that assists them in creating their own sense of self-acceptance and builds on their self-esteem. If the student athlete becomes injured, student affairs personnel must encourage the development of relationships separate from family. In doing so, students develop instrumental independence that “involves the ability to be self-sufficient and uproot from one environment and function effectively in a new environment” (Harris, 2003, p. 79).
The student community can affect the student athlete’s ability to create meaningful relationships with campus community members other than teammates. Miller and Kerr (2002) studied Canadian student athletes and how their lives revolve around the three central spheres: athletic, academic and social. This study illustrates how the student community impacts developing competence, specifically intellectual and interpersonal competence. The study found that the students considered the relationship between the three spheres as competitive, and the athletes were forced to make compromises and learn how to negotiate. These problem-solving skills helped the student athletes make decisions about how, when, and with whom they studied and socialized after incorporating athletic obligations. Results of the study by Miller and Kerr found that these sphere relationships affected their academic performance, and that there is a “relationship between the degree of involvement in academic decision-making and subsequent academic performance” (Miller & Kerr, 2002, p. 356).
The student development programs and services at the institution also impact how the individual student athlete grows in all seven vectors. As student athletes experience earlier vectors, they will begin establishing identity. Programs created to support the student athlete’s identity development need to provide opportunities for students to interact with a broad range of students and experience social and scholastic programs that expand their worldview. Harris (2003) stated “An identity based exclusively on athletics can be a trap because it prevents the exploration of other roles and more diverse experiences”.
The academic environment should promote creative thinking. In a team environment, athletes are not encouraged to think creatively because they need to follow the playbook based on the coach’s direction (Wright, 2001). “Only in an environment where creativity is encouraged and nourished will students produce original thoughts” (Wright, 2001, p.59). Therefore the student athlete must have the opportunity to participate in thought provoking activities independent from athletics so that they can move through the fifth vector and establish an identity that includes more diverse elements than athletics.
Chickering’s theory can be used to develop programs throughout the student athlete’s tenure to help the athlete develop academically, personally, and socially. The above noted environmental factors and vectors are only several of many that the student athlete works through in his or her own development. Harris (2003) outlined a summary by vector of program applications based on Chickering’s theory. An example addressing the third vector of moving through autonomy toward interdependence would be to create problem-solving situations for the student to work through. The student learns that he or she can be self-directed and does not have to rely on others for help to solve problems. This concept of creating programs based on specific student athlete requirements for each vector can be useful to help the student athlete progress in personal development.
Schlossberg’s Transition Theory
Schlossberg’s Transition Theory can be used to examine student athlete development. Contextually, the student athlete’s environment is based on sports’ team foundation. As athletes enter college, they join an established group that provides parameters for development and performance depending on the institution’s athletic mission. Each season offers an opportunity for transition as the athlete matures in his or her athletic ability or is removed from the team based on ability or injury. The student athlete works through these transitions contextually, by gaining an understanding of his or her individual relationship to the transition, as well as what impact the transition has on his or her daily life.
Schlossberg provides four factors that describe how student athletes work through their transitions. These four factors are: a) the situation variable, b) the self variable, c) the support variable, and d) the strategies variable (Schlossberg, Waters & Goodman 1995). These transitional factors can be as simple as competition among teammates for starting positions, or as complex as injury that keeps them from competing.
The situational factor has several elements. All factors are important, but this key factor includes the transition trigger: how the athlete’s role changed, has this transition happened before and are there other stressful elements surrounding the transition? These elements are incorporated in the second factor, the student athlete’s sense of self. Both the personal and demographic characteristics of the student athlete combine to address how he or she views his or her relationship to the transition. Additionally, his or her psychological coping abilities will determine how well he or she works through the transition. Coping skills used for sport should be tapped into to help the student develop in other areas.
Student athletes also have to rely on their support systems for coping with the transition. The support system includes family, friends, and the institutional community. For athletes, the institutional community becomes primarily the coaching staff and team members. Depending on the severity of the transition, individuals in the athletic department can have the strongest impact for support.
The final factor to be considered is the strategy the student athletes use for coping with the transition. If athletes have been encouraged to create relationships and interests outside of athletics, they develop different responses to interactions in non-athletic situations. How well they learn to alter the situation, how much they feel in control of the transition, and what they can do to manage the stress of the transition are all elements of strategies the athlete will incorporate as he or she deals with transition.
Schlossberg’s transition theory is a tool that student affairs practitioners can use to examine student athletes’ issues as they work through their athletic success and/or failures in the college environment. It can also be useful to develop programs that are aimed specifically at the issues facing student athletes as they transition from being a student athlete to a student looking for a career after graduation.
Model Programs Addressing Student-Athlete Disengagement
The following outlines two model programs currently in place addressing sport transitions. The Positive Transitions Sport Retirement Model (PTSRM) (Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich, 2001) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association CHAMPS (Challenging Athletes’ Minds for Personal Success)/LifeSkills Program (NCAA, n.d.) are two excellent examples of programs that work to ease the transition to life after collegiate athletic competition. The programs offer a variety of resources and materials to student-athletes and address issues unique to the student-athlete experience.
The PTSRM is based on reality therapy. This model holds student athletes responsible for addressing sport retirement instead of dwelling on what could have been (Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich, 2001). By using athletic transferable skills as a teaching tool, the program helps student athletes build confidence in their skills and abilities beyond the realm of athletics. These athletic transferable tools include goal setting and communicating effectively with teammates (Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich, 2001). The PTSRM is based on earlier models that also target sport retirement. These programs include the Career Assistance Program for Athletes, the STRATEGIES program, and The Life Development Intervention (Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich, 2001).
The PTSRM was designed in 1996 at a Midwestern land grant Division I university. The model first appeared as an informal support group for fifth-year athletes who had exhausted their eligibility, and it developed into a career development course offered to junior, senior, and fifth12 year student athletes (Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich, 2001). The PTSRM course prepares student athletes for the transition process upon sport retirement.
The findings and outcomes from the program have been encouraging. Since its inception, 139 student athletes from 32 varsity sports have completed the program. Stankovich (1998) evaluated the model program and found increases in career maturity, in confidence in career decision-making, and in readiness to retire from sports. Student athletes also have decreases in their level of athletic identity (Stankovich, 1998). One student participant stated, “This course allows you to realize the steps you need to take in order to get what you want in every facet of life. It’s something I recommend to any student athlete, whether or not they have thoughts of turning pro” (Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich, 2001, p.83).
The CHAMPS/LifeSkills Program was established in 1994 by the NCAA. In its first year, 47 higher education institutions participated, Clemson University included. Clemson University’s Student-Athlete Enrichment Programs uses the CHAMPS/LifeSkills Program. The pilot program was in place for three years from 1994 to 1997, and Clemson now serves as a mentoring school for other intercollegiate sports programs. Clemson University has participated in this program for the past ten years (Clemson University, 2004).
As the ten-year anniversary of the CHAMPS/LifeSkills Program approaches, 472 institutions now participate. The program’s purpose is providing student athletes with assistance in regard to the adjustments they will have to make as they end active involvement in competitive sports (Kelley, 2003). The program’s mission is “to develop and enhance the life of the student-athlete through educational programs and resources focusing on gender equity, student-athlete welfare, and life skills” (Kelley, 2003, p.1). The CHAMPS/LifeSkills Program has five components: academics, athletics, personal development, career development, and community service.
At Clemson University, freshmen student athletes are required to attend a fifty-minute class once a week during their first semester. The CHAMPS/LifeSkills Program addresses concerns related to academic success, health and wellness issues, athletic issues, and values and goals (Clemson University, 2004). The academic portion of the program focuses on organizational skills, communication skills, and study skills. The health and wellness aspect of the class concentrates on sports nutrition, stress management, sexually transmitted diseases, sleep management, alcohol and other drugs, and rape awareness. Guest speakers from Clemson University’s Redfern Health Center participate in the program. Athletic issues such as having little free time, the increased visibility of being an athlete, social and competitive pressures, fear of injury, and travel schedules are addressed by guest speakers and through class discussion. Student athlete values and goals are also examined by values clarification exercises, and the materials about values and goals include dealing with authority, cultural diversity, ethics awareness, conflict resolution, and goal setting.
The CHAMPS/LifeSkills Program’s impact on student athletes extends beyond one class during freshman year. Workshops and seminars are also held to address more specific topics related to personal growth and development. Workshop and seminar topics include: nutrition, sports psychology and performance, financial management, assistance with graduate opportunities and scholarships, and general life skills.
At Clemson University, the Student-Athlete Enrichment Programs also employs a Career Services Director who works closely with student athletes. The Career Services Director’s role is to better prepare student athletes for their transition from collegiate competition to the career world. The Career Services Director helps student athletes refine their résumés, locate internships and potential jobs, and polish their interviewing skills. The student athlete career fair attracts many companies and offers student athletes a look at different career options. By speaking to former student athletes about their career decisions, they get individual attention and have access to a variety of resources.
Both programs impact student athletes’ holistic development. These programs address academic issues, but they also address issues specific to the collegiate athletic environment. Student athletes learn about themselves and are exposed to an array of opportunities so that the transition from athletics is not as distressing.
Conclusion
The collegiate environment and experience is very different for a student athlete versus a non-athlete student. The athletes have a very structured and controlled environment. Student athletes often room together, travel, and receive academic assistance as a group. While coaches and athletic staff prefer this approach, it may be detrimental to the student athlete’s overall development. Henderson, Meeker & Stankovich (2001) provide a description of student athletes as a group that has shared experiences and are faced with atypical demands that challenge their individual personal development.
A study conducted by Blann (1985) suggested that collegiate athletes who participate at a high level of competition might lose or fail to develop the ability to make mature educational and career plans. Student affairs personnel can provide the change that is needed to emphasize the holistic development of the student athlete and prepare students for life beyond the athletic arena. Student affairs can promote and provide programs to encourage the student athlete to personally grow and develop in other non-athletic aspects. This, in turn, would ease the transition process of disengagement.
The concept of disengagement accurately describes the variety of issues student athletes contend with when they can no longer participate in collegiate sports. This transition impacts the student athletes overall identity development, and thus impacts their ability to perceive and follow through on academic initiatives and focus on career decisions. Student development theory can be utilized to understand students’ identity development. Chickering’s theory of identity development and Schlossberg’s transition theory provide a framework to develop transition programs for student athletes. Grief and retirement counseling theories were also briefly noted. Further research should be done in these areas to be applied to student athletes’ transition of disengagement.
Existing programs are successful in providing focus for the student athlete on how to expand their involvement in collegiate activities instead of being enmeshed in athletics. However, the results of the limited research conducted with current and former student athletes implies that more can be done to help student athletes with the transition from a collegiate athletic career to some other profession. Student affairs professionals must encourage active involvement from coaching staff and faculty in program development specifically for student athletes, recognizing that there are unique elements to incorporate to promote the growth of the whole student.
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Linda Jameison
Presbyterian College
International Study Experience: Impact on Student Identity Development
Increasingly, students and higher education faculty and administration are being encouraged to participate in study abroad programs. There is a greater awareness that the different people and cultures around the world will increasingly interact for personal, occupational and marketplace growth. In 2000, the then Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley encouraged Congress to provide funding to increase the number of participants in international education as an integral component of future global cooperation (Cox, Matthews & Assoc., 2000). The Open Doors Report, published by the Institute of International Education reports that the number of students that study abroad has tripled since the mid 1980’s; 40,000 plus students studied abroad in 1985 and almost 180,000 studied abroad in 2003 (Gardner & Witherell, 2004). To help our students develop their identity, to develop their ability to communicate with diverse populations and to become productive world citizens, student affairs practitioners and faculty should review how their current programs and curriculum to develop the whole student facilitate identity development with a global perspective.
A brief review of recent articles about international education finds several themes that are incorporated in student development initiatives. Identity development, communication and interpersonal skills, and various ways of learning are discussed as they relate to the international education opportunity. In addition, there is a need for prominent student affairs practitioners to become leaders in developing a sense of global interconnectedness (Dalton, 1999; Kruger & Dungy, 1999).
The following ideas relate to different definitions of international education. One definition is that international education provides a unique environment for people of two or more nations to engage in the education process (Hansen, 2002). Global education is the process whereby an individual learns how issues have an interconnectedness of cultures, ecological systems, economic, political and technological parameters (Tye, 2003). Fraser and Brickman’s definition of international education is noted as “a dynamic concept that involves a journey or movement of people, minds or ideas across political and cultural frontiers” (as cited in Hansen, 2002, p.5). Each of these elements of definition addresses how international education is a developmental process for the whole person. Given this perspective, this literature review will address these issues through an initial review of current literature and how Chickering’s Theory of Identity Development could be applied to a study abroad student’s personal development. The review will also address challenges for the ways students learn in an international education format. Lastly, the review will address how student affairs practitioners can lead their institutions development of global education programs. The information gathered will highlight the need for additional research and reflection about how to provide the best educational opportunities that support the developmental objectives for the student affairs profession.
Identity Development
A goal of a study abroad initiative is to have the student focus on their individual development and gain international understanding of their world (Sowa, 2002). Studying abroad can enhance the students understanding of their own identity through greater awareness of multiculturalism and diversity (Dalton, 1999). After completing a semester abroad, the student will be able to identify with a broader variety of individuals (Gray, Murdock & Stebbins, 2002). While goals of study abroad programs may not specifically describe individual identity development through personal growth and self-awareness, they do outline elements and tasks of identity development that students go through during their international experience.
Psychosocial development theory, developed by Erik Erikson, examines how students work through issues they face by how they define themselves, how their relationships with other people develop and what decisions they make about what to do with their lives (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). The theory helps to explain identity development based on the experiences that students have and how they react to those experiences. In Arthur Chickering’s Theory of Identity Development (as cited in Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998) the student moves through vectors, influenced by the environment, that help to understand the student’s personal development. There are seven vectors, beginning with Developing Competence, where the individual gains confidence in their abilities, through Developing Integrity, where the individual has gained and incorporates humanistic values in their actions.
For a student studying abroad, there is an assumption that they have worked through several of the vectors just because they have the interest and ability to take the steps to participate in a study abroad program. However, because they will now be in a new educational environment, the student will consciously or unconsciously re-assess themselves in each vector. In an international education environment, they will work through the first vector, Developing Competence. The student will be challenged to evaluate their intellectual, interpersonal and physical competence to study abroad. A study by Myburgh, Niehaus and Poggenpoel (2002) found that the participants described difficulties in adjusting to different teaching methods, many times due to a second language barrier. However, students were appreciative of the varying opportunities to gain knowledge and develop new skills, which ultimately reinforced their own sense of competence.
The student would also have another opportunity to move through the second vector of Chickering’s theory, Managing Emotions, as they recognize that there are differing acceptance levels of how emotion can be displayed. Loneliness is a very common emotion for students studying abroad. By sharing their feelings with new groups of friends (Myburgh, Niehaus & Poggenpoel, 2002), as well as maintaining contact with home support systems through e-mail (Grant, 1999), the student will be able to gain confidence in expressing and working through their various emotions. Because the student is comfortable with going to another country, it might be assumed that they have moved through the third vector, Moving Through Autonomy Toward Interdependence. Many students experience culture shock that will impact their ability to connect with people in the host country and then not gain a sense of interconnectedness with them. Pre-departure orientations for students studying abroad should include programming that promotes cross-cultural training to increase the benefits of interaction (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004) and help the student progress through this vector.
The study abroad student will have opportunities to work through the fourth vector, Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships. They will be in a new education environment that will have different parameters for creating relationships with peers, professors and program administrators. In Myburgh, et al.’s study (2002) students found that they had to believe in their own social competence and interpersonal skills to learn new ways to create and maintain relationships. R. D. Nordgren (2002) suggests that the way we can help students develop positive productive relationships is to include teaching them how to get along with one another throughout the curriculum. Learning how to get along with one another starts in grade school in the classroom, at recess, during lunch, etc. and later in the higher education environment through various teamwork projects.
Chickering’s theory outlines how students work through each vector. The fifth vector, Establishing Identity, is achieved by building on the previous four vectors. The study abroad student has the opportunity to work through these previous vectors in an international college environment, which potentially is more challenging than just transferring to another institution in the United States. Does the study abroad student have an increased desire to participate in challenging situations than other college students? If so, is this desire an indication of how they establish their unique identity? Schroth and McCormack (2000) conducted a study on two personality elements, sensation seeking and need for achievement, to see if there were quantifiable differences in students identities based on studying abroad. The results of their study showed that the student who studies abroad is more likely to do so because they are interested in new experiences, versus the need for thrill and adventure. The results also indicated that the study abroad student was more motivated by achievement, than those who did not desire to study abroad. The study’s findings could suggest that the student’s sense of personal identity is based on their interaction with people and cultures other than their own.
Communication and Interpersonal Skills
A key goal for a study abroad program is to have the student develop a respect for values and perspectives of other cultures, and to be aware of how international and multicultural issues influence their own lives (Gray, Murdock & Stebbins, 2002). By becoming internationalized, the student understands and accepts human differences (Ping, 1999). To develop cultural awareness, the student must expand their communication and interpersonal skills.
English is an international language; yet words can have different contextual meanings in different countries (Myburgh, Niehaus & Poggenpoel, 2002). Different contextual meanings are very understandable when English is considered a second language in the host country. When an American student goes to study in England, they may believe that because there is a shared language the culture is also the same (Edwards, 2004). Thus, they may not be prepared to learn about the cultural differences. It is important to recognize that whether English is the first, second, or shared language the cultural differences will provide challenges to cross-cultural communication (Myburgh, Niehaus & Poggenpoel, 2002).
Today’s technology can provide advantages and disadvantages for communication. The opportunity to use e-mail and to use foreign language conversion programs can help the study abroad student communicate in their host country, as well as increase interaction beyond their borders (Grant, 1999). Allowing technology to help foster communication is an asset. It is also important to understand that different cultures value the written word differently than the American culture. Relying on the written word in a culture that places greater importance on dialog could be perceived as lacking respect for the host culture (Grant, 1999) affecting the ability to communicate. A caution for student affairs practitioners to be aware of is to recognize that the student may use technology in place of personal interaction. For personal and cultural development to occur, fostering human contact should be a priority for the faculty and program administrators (Peterson, et al., 1999).
Studying abroad provides the student with the opportunity to live within another culture while at the same time gaining self-awareness to cultural relations. Living in a different country offers challenges to the students previously held stereotypes while at the same time providing venue for personal growth (Gray, Murdock & Stebbins, 2002). Student affairs practitioners are encouraged to provide intercultural, experiential programs for students on their home campus to increase interaction among different cultures (Peterson, et al., 1999). These types of programs will provide awareness of different cultures before the students embarks on study abroad.
Current multicultural identity development theory in higher education is geared towards understanding how American students relate to different backgrounds and cultures within the United States. Given study abroad initiatives to increase the student’s cultural competence and understanding, the counselor or advisor working with the student should review how the student defines cultural competence and apply them as goals for personal growth. A study abroad student works towards becoming culturally competent by becoming aware of their own assumptions about human behavior, values and biases within their own country as compared to those of their host country (Sue & Sue, 2003). More research needs to be done to understand how a student’s own cultural identity is developed based on their interactions with the dominant and minority cultures in their host country, versus their sense of cultural identity in their home country.
Ways of Learning
The opportunity to study abroad provides the student an education experience that includes both in class and out of class learning. In the classroom environment, the student is expected to fulfill traditional academic expectations resulting in an acceptable grade. Both inside and outside the classroom, the student is incorporating new ways of working with teachers, fellow students, and the general population. The student can sometimes feel a cultural disadvantage because they do not have the local background for experience and expectations (Myburgh, Niehaus & Poggenpoel, 2002). The student realizes that teamwork is vital in understanding life skills, such as problem solving and linking resources that may not be taught in the classroom environment. To enhance their life skills, the students may find that they need to develop critical thinking and negotiating skills (Myburgh, Niehaus & Poggenpoel, 2002).
The concept of experiential learning can be applied to a study abroad program. Similar to an Outward Bound program, the students are challenged to learn outside their comfort zone, encouraged to participate in teamwork, resulting in increased self esteem and self confidence (Gray, Murdock & Stebbins, 2002). The learning opportunity has also been described as fieldwork on human behavior (Edwards, 2004). Through a residential experience is with a host family, a student will learn about the similarities and differences of the community, as well as the family dynamics of the host family versus their own.
The student studying abroad is provided with an enhanced experience to develop wisdom. Brown (2004) outlines a framework that explores how wisdom develops. Brown relates that individuals must recognize what they learn from life. “Learning-fromlife is comprised of reflection and integration and application” (Brown, 2004, p.139). Students will gain wisdom when they are able to apply what they have learned to change their way of thinking. Researchers have found that study abroad students “were more reflective, more prepared to help others, more knowledgeable (about) international affairs, and more confident” (Sowa, 2002, p.65). The literature mentioned in this review identify that the ways that students learn when they participate in study abroad are all encompassing.
Student Affairs Leaders
The desired outcomes associated with study abroad programs speak to the influence of a student affairs premise to challenge and support. Participants gain new cultural insight, develop long-term personal relationships and bring an added value of being interested and able to create relationships with international students on the home campus (Kruger & Dungy, 1999). Strong leadership is needed in student affairs to support international education through increased resources, both human and financial (Christie & Ragans, 1999) providing access and increased participation.
Student affairs faculty and administration have a responsibility to assist students in making the most of their international experience. The responsibility starts with the culture and programs of the home institution. As leaders in the institution, the student affairs faculty and administrators should have international experience and an outlook to fully engage an international culture on their campus (Dalton, 1999). When an individual is globally-minded they recognize that people from different countries and cultures are interconnected through economics, politics and communication. Therefore student affairs leaders need to be internationally minded to support students, faculty and administration in study abroad initiatives (Dalton, 1999).
Summary & Ideas for Further Review
The review of literature has highlighted how the concept of Chickering’s Theory of Identity Development can be applied to the student’s study abroad experience and how they learn. In addition, the review emphasized how student affairs leaders can help foster the global development process. The literature indicated a review of other student development theories that could provide valuable information to student affairs practitioners in regards to the study abroad program.
The student that studies abroad experiences new ways of learning and finds different ways to communicate and interact with people of different cultures. More research needs to be done to understand how student development theory can be applied and used for the development of the whole student by incorporating the international education experience. Additional elements that can be reviewed are how study abroad impacts career objectives and opportunities, how it affects the student’s ability to broaden their understanding of their own multicultural identity and how student affairs practitioners can benefit from professional development opportunities in other countries.
Given the increasing numbers of students that study abroad each year, it is imperative that leaders in student affairs participate in the development of international and intercultural programs. They should review and assess how the programs affect a student’s personal and multicultural identity and gain a better understanding of how an international experience supports and challenges the student’s view of the world. The study abroad experience impacts the student’s identity development. Just what that impact is, is a subject that needs additional research so that students can be assured of going on programs that foster academic, intellectual and personal growth.
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